Abstract
Teacher education, both pre- and in-service
programmes, are offered in the country by different teacher education
institutions as declared in the National Policy on Education. However, although commendable efforts have
been made, yet much needs to be desired in the context of lifelong
education. There should be parity
between the regular full-time and the sandwich programmes in terms of entry
qualification, course duration and course content, nor should the in-service
programmes be commercialized. Teacher
education offering requires all hands to be on deck including the governments,
teacher education institutions and teachers associations. Innovations, such as, Mentoring, Peer
In-Service, Peer-Tutoring, Subject Lead-Teachers and Cluster Lead-Teachers
approaches should be adopted so as to afford continuing professional education
opportunities to teachers. Key Words:
teacher education, lifelong education
INTRODUCTION
Teacher education refers to professional education of
teachers towards attainment of attitudes, skills and knowledge considered
desirable so as to make them efficient and effective in their work in
accordance with the need of a society at any point in time. It includes training/education occurring
before commencement of service (pre-service) and education/training during
service (in-service or on-the-job). As a matter of fact, teacher education
should constitute a conspicuous element in the totality of organized education,
both formal and non-formal sub-systems.
As the title
indicates, our concern is with teacher education curriculum in Nigeria, a
country that has since 1977 avowed to adopt lifelong education in her education
principle and practice. The design for this paper is historical analysis so as
to have a peep into the teacher education policy and practice. Thus, we have
to, firstly, have a review of teacher education in the country. Secondly, we have to analyze the concept
‘lifelong education’ and its adoption in teacher education in Nigeria. Thirdly, we are to weigh the policy and
practice vis-à-vis lifelong education.
Finally, we have to give suggestions towards improving teacher education
in the context of lifelong education.
MEANING AND NATURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION:
Meaning of Teacher Education:
It is well known that the quality and extent of
learner achievement are determined primarily by teacher competence, sensitivity
and teacher motivation.
The National Council for Teacher Education has defined
teacher education as a programme of education, research and training of persons
to teach from pre-primary to higher education level.
Teacher education is a programme that is related to
the development of teacher proficiency and competence that would enable and
empower the teacher to meet the requirements of the profession and face the
challenges therein.
According to Goods Dictionary of Education Teacher
education means, all the formal and non-formal activities and experiences that
help to qualify a person to assume responsibilities of a member of the
educational profession or to discharge his responsibilities more effectively.‖
In 1906-1956, the program of teacher preparation was
called teacher training. It prepared teachers as mechanics or technicians. It
had narrower goals with its focus being only on skill training. The perspective
of teacher education was therefore very narrow and its scope was limited. As W.H. Kilpatric put it, Training is given
to animals and circus performers, while education is to human beings.‖
Teacher Education = Teaching Skills +
Pedagogical theory + Professional skills.
Teaching skills would include providing training and
practice in the different techniques, approaches and strategies that would help
the teachers to plan and impart instruction, provide appropriate reinforcement
and conduct effective assessment. It includes effective classroom management
skills, preparation and use of instructional materials and communication
skills.
Pedagogical theory includes the philosophical,
sociological and psychological considerations that would enable the teachers to
have a sound basis for practicing the teaching skills in the classroom. The
theory is stage specific and is based on the needs and requirements that are
characteristic of that stage.
Professional skills include the techniques, strategies
and approaches that would help teachers to grow in the profession and also work
towards the growth of the profession. It includes soft skills, counseling
skills, interpersonal skills, computer skills, information retrieving and
management skills and above all lifelong learning skills.
An amalgamation of teaching skills, pedagogical theory
and professional skills would serve to create the right knowledge, attitude and
skills in teachers, thus promoting holistic development.
Nature of Teacher Education:
1) Teacher education is a continuous
process and its pre-service and in-service components are complimentary to each
other. According to the International Encyclopedia of Teaching and Teacher
education (1987), Teacher education can be considered in three phases:
Pre-service, Induction and In-service. The three phases are considered as parts
of a continuous process.
2) Teacher education is based on the
theory that Teachers are made, not born‖ in contrary to the assumption,
Teachers are born, not made. Since teaching is considered an art and a science,
the teacher has to acquire not only knowledge, but also skills that are called
tricks of the trade‖.
3) Teacher education is broad and
comprehensive. Besides preserve and in-service programmes for teachers, it is
meant to be involved in various community programmes and extension activities,
viz adult education and non-formal education programmes, literacy and
development activities of the society.
4) It is ever-evolving and dynamic. In
order to prepare teachers who are competent to face the challenges of the
dynamic society, Teacher education has to keep abreast of recent developments
and trends.
NEED, SCOPE AND
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER EDUCATION:
Need of teacher education:
The Nigerian Commission on Teacher Education rightly observes,
“The quality of a nation depends upon
the quality of its citizens. The quality of its citizens depends not
exclusively, but in critical measure upon the quality of their education, the
quality of their education depends more than upon any single factor, upon the
quality of their teacher.”
Every community should
have a talented and dedicated teacher in every classroom. We have enormous
opportunity for ensuring teacher quality well into the 21st century
if we recruit promising people into teaching and give them the highest quality
preparation and training”.
The need for teacher education is
felt due to the following reasons;
1) It is common knowledge that the
academic and professional standards of teachers constitute a critical component
of the essential learning conditions for achieving the educational goals of a
nation. The focus of teacher preparation had to shift from training to
education if it had to make a positive influence on the quality of curriculum
transaction in classrooms and thereby pupil learning and the larger social
transformation. The aspects that need greater emphasis are;
The length of academic preparation, the level and quality of subject matter knowledge, the repertoire of pedagogical skills that teachers possess to
meet the needs of diverse learning situations,
The degree of commitment to the profession, sensitivity to contemporary issues and problems
and the level of
motivation.
This is not possible if teacher preparation focused
only on training. Holistic teacher building is necessary and therefore teacher
education needed more emphasis than mere training.
2) Educating all children well depends
not only on ensuring that teachers have the necessary knowledge and skills to
carry out their work, but also that they take responsibility for seeing that
all children reach high levels of learning and that they act accordingly.
3) People come to teacher education with
beliefs, values, commitments, personalities and moral codes from their
upbringing and schooling which affect who they are as teachers and what they
are able to learn in teacher education and in teaching. Helping teacher
candidates examine critically their beliefs and values as they relate to
teaching, learning and subject matter and form a vision of good teaching to
guide and inspire their learning and their work is a central task of teacher
education (Fieman-Nemser, 2001).
4) On a daily basis, teachers confront
complex decisions that rely on many different kinds of knowledge and judgement
and that can involve high stakes outcomes for students ‘future. To make good
decisions, teachers must be aware of the many ways in which student learning
can unfold in the context of development, learning differences, language and
cultural influences, and individual temperaments, interests and approaches to
learning.
5) Teacher education like any other
educational intervention, can only work on those professional commitments or
dispositions that are susceptible to modification. While we can‘t remake
someone‘s personality, we can reshape attitudes towards the other and develop a
professional rather than a personal role orientation towards teaching as a
practice.
6) The Ministry of Education
document Challenge of Education :
A Policy Perspective‖ (1985) has mentioned, Teacher performance is the
most crucial input in the field of education.
Whatever policies may be laid down, in the ultimate analysis these have
to be implemented by teachers as much through their personal example as through
teaching learning processes.‖ India has reached the threshold of the
development of new technologies which are likely to revolutionize the classroom
teaching. Unless capable and committed are teachers in service, the education
system cannot become a suitable and potential instrument of national
development.
The teacher is required to acquire adequate knowledge,
skills, interests and attitudes towards the teaching profession. The teacher‘s
work has become more complicated and technical in view of the new theories of
psychology, philosophy, sociology, modern media and materials. The teacher can
be made proficient with well planned, imaginative pre-service and in-service
training programmes.
Scope of Teacher Education:
The scope of teacher education can be understood in the following ways;
·
Teacher
education at different levels of education
·
Triangular
basis of teacher education
·
Aspects
of teacher education
Teacher Education at different levels
of Education:
Teacher education reaches teachers at all levels of education, namely
Preprimary, Primary, Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the Tertiary.
The needs and requirements of students and education vary at each level. Hence
level and stage-specific teacher preparation is essential. Teacher education
also helps in the development of teaching skills in teachers of professional
institutions. The teachers in professional institutions have only the
theoretical and practical knowledge of their respective subjects. They require
specialized teacher training inputs to deal with students entering their
professions. Teacher education also reaches special education and physical
education. Thus where there are teachers, there would be teacher education.
The knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified
across stages, in order to develop effective processes of preparing entrant
teachers for the functions which a teacher is expected to perform at each
stage.
Triangular Basis of Teacher
education: Construction
of the relevant knowledge base for each stage of education requires a high
degree of academic and intellectual understanding of matter related to teacher
education at each stage. This involves selection of theoretical knowledge from
disciplines cognate to education, namely, psychology, sociology and philosophy,
and converting it into forms suitable for teacher education. Teacher education
derives its content from the disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology and
Psychology. These disciplines provide the base for better understanding and
application of Teacher education. The Philosophical
basis provides insights to the student teachers about the implications of-
the various schools of philosophy, ancient and modern philosophical thoughts,
educational thoughts of philosophical thinkers on education and its various
aspects such as curriculum construction
and discipline. The Sociological
basis helps the student teachers to understand the role of society and its
dynamics in the educational system of a nation and the world at large. It
encompasses the ideals that influence national and international scenes. The Psychological basis helps the student
teachers develop insights into students ‘psychological make-up. This enables
the student teachers to understand their self, their students and the learning
situations such that they are able to provide meaningful and relevant learning
experiences to their students.
Aspects of Teacher Education: Teacher education is concerned with
the aspects such as, who (Teacher Educator), whom (Student teacher), what
(Content) and how (Teaching Strategy). Teacher education is dependent upon the
quality of teacher educators. The quality of pedagogical inputs in teacher education
programmes and their effective utilization for the purpose of preparing
prospective teachers depend largely on the professional competence of teacher
educators and the ways in which it is utilized for strengthening the teacher
education programme. Teacher education, thus, first deals with the preparation
of effective teacher educators.
Teacher education reaches out to the student teachers by
providing the relevant knowledge, attitude and skills to function effectively
in their teaching profession. It serves to equip the student teachers with the
conceptual and theoretical framework within which they can understand the
intricacies of the profession. It aims at creating the necessary attitude in
student teachers towards the stakeholders of the profession, so that they
approach the challenges posed by the environment in a very positive manner. It
empowers the student teachers with the skills (teaching and soft skills) that
would enable them to carry on the functions in the most efficient and effective
manner. Teacher education therefore pays attention to its content matter.
Objectives: Vision of teacher
education:
Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the
emerging demands from the school system. For this, it has to prepare teachers
for a dual role of;
Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching
learning situations who enables learners (students) to discover their talents,
to realize their physical and intellectual potentialities to the fullest, to
develop character and desirable social and human values to function as
responsible citizens; and, An active member of the group of persons who make conscious
effort to contribute towards the process of renewal of school curriculum to
maintain its relevance to the changing societal needs and personal needs of
learners, keeping in view the experiences gained in the past and the concerns
and imperatives that have emerged in the light of changing national development
goals and educational priorities.
These expectations suggest that teacher operates in a larger
context and its dynamics as well as concerns impinge upon her functioning. That
is to say, teacher has to be responsive and sensitive to the social contexts of
education, the various disparities in the background of learners as well as in
the macro national and global contexts, national concerns for achieving the
goals of equity, parity, and social justice as also excellence.
To be able to realize such
expectations, TE has to comprise such features as would enable the student
teachers to
·
Care
for children, and who love to be with them;
·
Understand
children within social, cultural and political contexts;
·
View
learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience;
·
Understand
the way learning occurs, possible ways of creating conductive conditions for
learning, differences among students in respect of the kind, pace and styles of
learning.
·
View
knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
·
Be
receptive and constantly learning.
·
View
learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience, and knowledge
generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in textbooks,
but as constructed in the shared context of teaching learning and personal
experience. Own responsibility towards society, and work to build a
better world. Appreciate the potential of productive work and hands-on
experience as a pedagogic medium both inside and outside the classroom.
·
Analyze
the curricular framework, policy implications and texts.
·
Have
a sound knowledge base and basic proficiency in language.
The objectives of teacher education
would therefore be to,
·
Provide
opportunities to observe and engage with children, communicate with and relate
to children
·
Provide
opportunities for self-learning, reflection, assimilation and articulation of
new ideas; developing capacities for self-directed learning and the ability to
think, be self-critical and to work in groups.
·
Provide
opportunities for understanding self and others (including one‘s beliefs,
assumptions and emotions); developing the ability for self-analysis,
self-evaluation, adaptability, flexibility, creativity and innovation.
·
Provide
opportunities to enhance understanding, knowledge and examine disciplinary
knowledge and social realities, relate subject matter with the social milieu
and develop critical thinking.
·
Provide
opportunities to develop professional skills in pedagogy, observation,
documentation, analysis, drama, craft, story-telling and reflective inquiry.
Genesis of Teacher Education in Nigeria
Teacher Education institutions started springing
up in Nigeria since 1895 when the Hope-Waddel Training Institute was
established in Calabar, followed by St. Andrew’s College, Oyo, in 1896. The
British
Colonial administration became involved in teacher training
in 1914 when it established one institution in Bonny. In the Northern part of
Nigeria one was established in 1909 at Nasarawa and another in 1921 at Katsina.
By 1925 fourteen institutions had been established in the country. Up to 1960 when Nigeria attained her
independence many teacher training institutions had been established by the
Christian missionary agencies and few by the government to produce Elementary
Teachers (Grade III) and Higher Elementary Certificate Teachers (Grade II).
Also, there was Grade I Teachers Certificate which was obtained through one of
two ways: A Grade II teacher who passed two Advanced Level General Certificate
of Education (GCE) subjects could apply for inspection in the two teaching
subjects, if successful would be awarded the certificate. Secondly, a Grade II certificate
holder could attend further training in one or two-year post Grade II College
of Agriculture, success in which would earn one the award of the Teachers Grade
One Certificate (Adesina, 2004:179).
Following the Ashby
Rep criticism. However, the UNN blazed a trail because at present there are
about 53 Federal and State Universities having Faculties of Education, and 62
Colleges of Education and Polytechnics.
In all these institutions, B.A./B.Sc degrees in Education are offered.
Also, for graduate teachers who did not read Education, there is Postgraduate
Diploma in Education (PGDE) through which such teachers are groomed to attain
both academic and professional competence in Education.
There has been a
controversy ranging between the proponents of the B.A/B.Sc Education and B.A.
/B.Sc. plus PGDE as which is a more appropriate teacher education programme
(Mkpa, 2002:11). Some institutions favour the B.A./B.Sc Education programme,
which combines professional teacher education courses with the courses in a
teaching subject simultaneously over a period of four years. But the proponents of the B.A./B.Sc plus PGDE
options stress that the other option does not allow for an in-depth study of
the teaching subject area. That is, in
the bid to combine the two field’s depth is compromised. The PGDE option, the proponents hold, allows
for an in-depth study of the teaching subject over a period of four years after
which one extra year is devoted entirely too professional education. However,
the two options are being used in teacher education in the country.
Lifelong Education
The seventies featured the emergence of critics of the
formal school system, such as Reimer (1971), Illich (1971), Freire (1972a &
b), Dore (1976) and other members of DE schooling Movement, who called for
reformation of education so as to afford an individual continuous and
integrated development to grapple with the changing world and restore oneself
as the author of his/her development and that of the society.
As if in response to these critics,
UNESCO set up an International Commission on Education under the chairmanship
of Edgar Faure, to review the World of Education. This Commission undertook a
critical assessment of the educational situation up to 1972, and reached an
all-round decision for the future progress of educational enterprise. Realizing the need for improvement on the
existing system, and also for alternatives, the Commission stressed the
fundamental idea of lifelong education and the learning society. In the words
of the Commission:
Since studies can no longer
constitute a definitive ‘whole’, handed out to and received by a student before
he embarks on adult life, whatever the level of his intellectual equipment and
the age at which he does so, educational systems must be though out afresh, in
their entirety, as must our very conception of them. If all that has to be
learned must be continually re-invented and renewed, then teaching becomes
education and more and more learning. If
learning involves all of one’s life, in the sense of both time-span and
diversity, and all of society, including its social and economic as well as its
educational resources, then we must go even further than the necessary overhaul
of ‘educational systems’ until we reach the stage of a learning society..
(Faure, 1972).
This report laid the
foundation for Third World Conference on Adult Education held in Tokyo (Japan)
in 1972. At this Conference the concept
of lifelong education was elaborately deliberated upon and ort of 1960 which
was set up for Post-School Certificate and Higher Education, Advanced Teacher
Training Colleges (Now Colleges of Education) were established as from 1962 to
produce well-qualified non-graduate teachers to teach lower classes in the
secondary schools. When the University of adopted as a guiding principle for
education (Cropley and Dave, 1978). The Kernels of lifelong education are;
there is need to continue learning throughout life; recognition of the formal,
non-formal and informal subsystems of education as making effective
contributions towards the education of citizens in different settings;
integration of educational sub-systems; democratization and diversification of
provisions. Formal education refers to the organized institutionalized school,
college and university with stereotyped curriculum as we usually have them
under the ministry of education. The
non-formal means all organized education activities outside of the school
network, while informal refers to random experiential education that takes
place unintended. Thus, the organized formal and non-formal should be made to
interact with each other so as to endow an individual with the skill of
lifelong learning which is a tool for attaining lifelong education.
It is true that
citizens acquire education from different settings (formal, non-formal and
informal), but the integration of the different settings is fraught with
difficulty. To integrate two or three
things or systems would mean fusion of the systems so that each will lose its
identity or to make each retain its form while still having relationship with
others. In either way, it is difficult
to integrate sub-systems of education the curricula of which are unknown. For
instance, the informal education is unorganized and therefore does not have any
identifiable curriculum as to enable people know its content and coverage. The
non-formal subsystem is organized as well as the formal. But the non-formal is offered by different
bodies for different purposes using different methodologies. On the other hand,
the formal sub-system usually has a well-stated curriculum, which forms the
basis for its practice. To integrate two
or three sub-systems requires working out equivalences so as to be able to say,
for instance, that two-year undertaking in one sub-system is equivalent to one
year in another system.
In Nigeria, when one
graduates from a three-year National Certification of Education (NCE) course
from a College of Education, the one enters a university to read Education
degree for three years instead of four years.
This means that the three-year programme of NCE is equivalent to the
first year relevant programme of Education degree in a university. Also, after
obtaining an Advanced Level Certificate in the General Certificate of Education
(GCE), a candidate undergoes a three-year degree programme in a related
discipline in a university. Thus, the integration principle of lifelong
education could only be tenable where equivalences have been worked out between
formal and non-formal sub-systems. But it is very difficult and therefore
untenable between the unorganized informal sub-system and organized formal and
non-formal subsystems. The kernels ‘democratization and diversification’ are
tenable as these involve providing for people according to their interests and
needs. Thus, for teacher education,
different interests and needs should be catered for.
The endorsement of
lifelong education by UNESCO which Nigeria is a member formed the basis of the
National Policy on Education (NPE), published in 1977, revised in 1981, 1998
and 2004. Hence it is declared that
lifelong education will be the basis for the nation’s education policies (NPE,
2004:10). In this Policy Teacher
Education is assigned a chapter along with other segments.
Policy and Practice vis-à-vis Lifelong Education
In the Teacher
Education Section the purpose is stated to include production of highly
motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of
education system; production of teachers with intellectual and professional
background adequate for their assignment; and, to enhance teachers’ commitment
to the teaching profession. As a matter
of fact, the essence of teacher education should be production of
intellectually grounded and professionally committed teachers. It is very relevant that the policy realizes
that no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers (NPE,
2004:64).
However, the Policy
contains the phrase ‘teacher training’.
It should be realized that ‘training’ means acquisition of narrow
mechanical skills. The concept ‘teacher education’ should be preferred because
it reflects production of educators who are academically and professionally well-groomed
to be able to translate theory of teaching into practice and vise-versa. Hence
it is also stated that the curriculum is structured on the components of
General Studies (basic academic subjects); Foundation Studies (Principles and
Practice of Education); studies related to the student teachers’ subject of
specialization or teaching subject and Teaching Practice.
Other relevant
declarations include free in-service courses for up-grading untrained teachers
which the NTI, Kaduna will have overall responsibility for; and that in-service
training to be developed as an integral part of continuing teacher
education. National Certificate of
Education (NCE) which is awarded after a 3-year college of education course has
been declared to be the minimum qualification for teaching in the primary
schools. Consequently, many Colleges of
Education offer in-service courses towards up-grading grade II teachers to NCE
for the primary schools. These courses
are differently tagged sandwich or part-time programmes. The NTI has been alive
to its responsibility over part-time or sandwich programmes. Its distance
education programmes make use of the print (written text) and the electronic
media (radio, television and video tapes) towards successful offering of
in-service teacher education in the country (Aghenta, 1992:191). However, there
is doubt over the successful use of the electronic media in the face of
constant power failure all over the country.
Teacher education,
both pre-and in-service programmes are being offered in the Universities,
Colleges of Education and Polytechnics with different tags, such as, distance
education, sandwich and part-time. Even the Council of Nigeria (1993), duty of
which includes:
Determining what standards of
knowledge and skill are to be attained by persons seeking to become registered
as teachers…and raising those standards from time to time as circumstances may
permit: classifying from time to time members of the teaching profession
according to their level of training and qualification.
However, although
commendable efforts are being made on teacher education in the country, both
preand in-service, yet there are many problems.
Osuji (1995), Fabinu (2004:186) and Adesina (204:183), decry the
non-cooperation of the governments (Federal and States) with teachers
undergoing in-service courses. Aghenta (1992:196-197) and Mkpa (2000:111)
identify the shortcomings in the sandwich B.A./B.Sc Education programmes versus
the full-time programmes to include, entry qualification, course duration,
reduction in the scope of course content, commercialization of examination
grades, constraints of expensive handouts which must be bought by students.
Based on the shortcomings of the sandwich programmes, for instance in the
B.A/B.Sc Education degree, Aghenta (1992:198) suggests that a body should be
set up to streamline and harmonize them with full-time programmes; each
university senate should take a critical look at the sandwich programmes and
tighten up the entry requirements, lengthen the periods for completing the
courses and enrich the course content to ensure parity between the full-time
and sandwich programmes. Hence the NTI model should be emulated.
CHANGING CONTEXT OF
TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE NIGERIA SCENARIO:
The well-established
tradition of teaching and learning in India has retained its inherent strength
even under adverse circumstances. The post-independence period was
characterized by major efforts being made to nurture and transform teacher
education. The system of teacher preparation has come under considerable
pressure as a result of the expansion and growth of school education, through
efforts to universalize elementary education. Having inherited a foreign model
of teacher preparation at the time of independence from Britain in 1946, major
efforts have been made to adapt and up-date the teacher education curriculum to
local needs, to make it more context based, responsive and dynamic with regard
to best meeting the particular needs of India. The current system of teacher
education is supported by a network of national, provincial and district level
resource institutions working together to enhance the quality and effectiveness
of teacher preparation programs at the pre-service level and also through in-service
programs for serving teachers throughout the country.
Impact of National Policies:
Nigeria has made considerable progress in school
education since independence with reference to overall literacy, infrastructure
and universal access and enrolment in schools. Two major developments in the
recent years form the background to the present reform in teacher education-
The political recognition of Universalization of Elementary
Education that led to the Right to Education Bill, 2008 and The National Curriculum Framework for school education, 2005.
The Bill has been passed by the Parliament and the
Right to Education Act has come into being making it mandatory for the state to
provide free and compulsory education to almost 20 crore children in the 6-14
age group till class 8. The Act mandates a schedule for the functioning of
schools which includes a teacher student ratio of 1:30 till a student
population of 200 students at the primary stage. This would increase the demand
for qualified elementary school teachers many times. The country has to address
the need of supplying well qualified and professionally trained teachers in
large numbers in the coming years. The lunch of the massive and the recent
financial commitment and education access to augment the Universal Elementary
Education mission have underscored the need to adequately prepare teachers to
address the growing demand for quality education.
Developments in School education:
School education has seen significant development over
the decades since independence. According to Government estimates (Selected
Educational Statistics- 2004-2005 – Ministry of Human Resource Development, Abuja)
while 82% of the 20 crore children of the 5-14 age group were in school as per
enrolment figures, it is equally true that 50% of these children are dropping
out before completing class 8 (MHRD Annual Report 2007-08). The situation on
the ground is still ridden with difficulties. Regional, social, economic and
gender disparities are posing new challenges. This reality increases the
challenge that the prospective teacher will face in implementing the Right to
Education Act.
The continued fragmentation of the school system poses
the severest challenge to the national declaration of catering to the basic
needs of all children in the 6-14 age group through the elementary education in
an inclusive setting. However increasing privatization and differentiation of
the schooling system have vitiated drastically the right to quality education
for all children.
Changing Role of the Teacher:
The current system of schooling poses tremendous
burden on children. Educationists are of the view that the burden arises from
treating knowledge as a given‘, an external reality existing outside the
learner and embedded in textbooks. Knowledge is essentially a human construct,
a continuously evolving process of reflective learning. The NCF 2005, requires
a teacher to be a facilitator of children‘s learning in a manner that the child
is helped to construct his/her knowledge. Education is not a mechanical
activity of information transmission and teachers are not information
dispensers. Teachers have to increasingly play the role of crucial mediating
agents through whom curriculum is transacted.
Challenges in Teacher Education:
Unprecedented
expansion of teacher education institutions and programmes during the past few
years characterizes the teacher education scenario of today. With increasing
school enrolments and the launch of pan-Indian primary education development
programmes like Operation Blackboard, District Primary Education Programme, Universalization
of Elementary Education, there was a natural increase in the demand for
teachers. Added to this, the backlog of untrained teachers in the system and
the essential requirement of pre-service teacher certification for appointment
as a teacher led to mounting pressure on existing institutional capacity. The
demand far exceeding supply, market forces have taken over unprecedented rise
in the number of teacher education institutions in most parts of the country.
From 3489 courses in 3199 institutions and an intake
of 2, 74,072 in 2004, the numbers in December, 2008 swelled to 14,523 courses
in 12,200 institutions with an intake of 10, 73,661 at different levels. This
expansion has taken a heavy toll on quality parameters like infrastructure,
faculty learning resources and student profile.
Research and Innovation:
There is a need to increase research that documents
practices reflectively and analytically whether it is of programs or of
individual classrooms so that it can be included in the body of knowledge
available for study to student teachers. University departments and research
institutions need to undertake such research. In addition there is a need to
innovate with different models of teacher education. Institutional capacity and
capability to innovate and create are a pre-requisite for the pursuit of
excellence. Hence in the present scenario a lot of impetus has been given to research.
Many teacher educators are encouraged to take up either major or minor research
projects.
Inclusive Education:
There are two kinds of
exclusion prevalent in schools; one is the exclusion of the child with
disabilities and the second is the social exclusion of children who come from
socially and economically deprived backgrounds. There is a dire need to equip
teachers to overcome their biases in these regards and positively handle these
challenges.
The Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act of 2005
provides for free and compulsory education up to the age of 18 years for all
children with disabilities. The education of socially and economically
disadvantaged groups, especially the SCs, STs and minorities has remained a
primary national concern of education for several years. The enrolment and
retention of girls and therefore their participation has also remained behind
those of boys. Teachers will have to be specially equipped if the social
deprivation has to be overcome through education.
Perspectives for equitable and sustainable development:
In order to develop future citizens who
promote equitable and sustainable development for all sections of society and
respect for all, it is necessary that they be educated through perspectives of
gender equity, perspectives that develop values for peace, respect the rights
of all, and that respect and value work. In the present ecological crisis
promoted by extremely commercialized and competitive lifestyles, children need
to be educated to change their consumption patterns and the way they look at
natural resources.
There is also an increasing violence and
polarization both within children and between them that is being caused by
increasing stress in society. Education has a crucial role to play in promoting
values of peace based on equal respect of self and others. The NCF 2005 and
subsequent development of syllabi and materials is attempting to do this as
well.
Role of Community knowledge in education:
It is important for the development of concepts in
children as well as the application of school knowledge in real life that the
formal knowledge is linked with community knowledge. The NCF 2005 promotes the
inclusion of locally relevant content in the curriculum as well as
pedagogy.
ICT in Schools and e-learning:
With the onset and proliferation of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), there is a growing demand that it be included
in school education. Teacher education has been structured to orient and
sensitize the teacher to distinguish between developmentally appropriate and
detrimental uses of ICT. It needs to also equip teachers with competence to use
ICT for their own professional development.
Newly visualized Teacher Education
Program-
Emphasizes learning as a self-learning participatory process
taking place in social context of learner‘s as well as wider social context of
the community to nation as a whole. Puts full faith in self-learning capacity of school children
and student teacher and evolving proper educative programme for education. Views the learner as an active participative person in
learning. His/her capabilities or potentials are seen not as fixed but capable
of development through experiences. Views the teacher as a facilitator, supporting, encouraging
learner‘s learning. Does not treat knowledge as fixed, static or confined in
books but as something being constructed through various types of experiences.
It is created through discussion, evaluate, explain, compare and contrasts
i.e., through interaction. Emphasizes that appraisal in such an educative process will
be continuous, will be self-appraisal, will be peer appraisal, will be done by
teacher educators, and formal type too.
Hence there would be a major shift;
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From
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To
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Teacher centric, stable designs
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Learner centric, flexible process
|
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Teacher direction
and
decisions
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Learner autonomy
|
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Teacher guidance
and
monitoring
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Facilitates, support and encourages
learning
|
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Passive reception in learning
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Active participation in learning
|
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Learning within the four walls of
the classroom
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Learning in the wider social
context the class room
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Knowledge as "given" and
fixed
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Knowledge as it evolves and created
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Disciplinary focus
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Multidisciplinary, educational focus
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Linear exposure
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Multiple and divergent exposure
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Appraisal, short, few
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Multifarious, continuous
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Lifelong Teacher Education Model
The features of lifelong education include vertical
integration meaning education throughout life.
Thus, the objectives of teacher education should include cultivating in
the teachers the attitude of continuous learning. In-service programmes in the
forms of seminars, workshops and conferences should be seen as a priority so as
to offer teachers opportunities to refresh their knowledge and skills after the
initial pre-service education. Fadina (2004:303) suggests that more on-the-job
and in-service training should be provided to raise the standard of teachers in
Nigeria. Olude (2004:226) sees in-service training as a veritable means of
keeping teachers in Nigeria up-to-date in their areas, and as a lifelong
education process for improvement of the teachers and the educational system.
Teachers’ attendance to in-service
programmes should be seen as a necessity while governments (Federal and States)
should see it as their responsibility to support teachers financially and
morally. The parttime programmes should
be run free of charge as stated in the NPE nor should hand-outs be sold. Aghenta (1992:196-197) and Mkpa (2000:119)
suggest parity between regular full-time programmes and the in-
service/part-time/sandwich programmes in terms of entry qualifications, course
duration and content. Mkpa (2000:120) strongly recommends adoption of the
sandwich/NTI programmes, devoid of any form of bastardization and
commercialization.
Mkpa
(2000:120) suggests innovations in the in-service programmes in Nigeria to
include:
I.
Mentoring: This is strategy in which highly
experienced teachers in a school are assigned a number of less-experienced ones
to serve as their mentors or professional guides. This is like the Peer
In-Service Approach (PISA) which is a self-help in-service approach that
drastically reduces the cost of financing training programmes for teachers
within local government areas. Thus, the expertise of good/experienced teachers
is utilized to up-date other teachers in neighbouring schools in the same area
(UNESCO, 1997:30-31).
II.
Peer-Tutoring: A colleague approaches the other to
obtain or seek professional assistance or guide on any aspect of his/her
discipline where he/she is defective. In
this way, the area of professional competence of each colleague benefits the
other eventually leading to each member of staff growing academically and
professionally.
III.
Subject Lead-Teacher Approach: A Senior Teacher of the same subject
leads the other teachers, overseeing all curricular programmes associated with
that subject.
IV.
Cluster Lead-Teachers Approach: Teachers in selected schools in a
Local Government Area (five or less schools) come together to share experiences
in certain subjects. A very good teacher in a particular subject leads the
others. This cluster enhances mutual
assistance among themselves, hence self-improvement without necessarily going
to any training institution.
In addition to these strategies, the
different subject-teacher and discipline associations’ conferences, workshops,
and seminars should be encouraged on local government, state and national
bases. Usually, at these gatherings
experts are invited to give talks after which the topics are elaborately
discussed by all members.
The next characteristic is horizontal
integration, which means linking education and life. Teachers and student teachers should be made
aware that much education takes place in the society outside the formal
subsystem. This awareness will enable
teachers integrate or link up the school education with that of the
out-ofschool. This integration involves
bringing the society into the school and also bringing the school into the
society. For instance, relevant
resources in the society should be brought into the school to bring more
reality and boost classroom teaching.
Workshops, arts galleries, agricultural establishments and industrial
set-ups in the society should be used to interact with the formal school
teaching. Students’ practical teaching
exercises should not be restricted to the formal classrooms, but should be
extended to the out-of-school settings.
Thus, the teachers will link school education with life in the broader
society.
The third characteristic is
pre-requisites for learning. This refers to having the disposition to
continuing to learn or learning-how-to learn so as to enable one to be an
autonomous learner. Aghenta (1992:198) recommends the NTI model of distance
education with the students reporting to their teachers every weekend. Emphasis should be placed on the use of the
library and news media (print and electronic) to acquire knowledge. Continuous assessment and self-assessment
should be stressed so as to enable students monitor their achievements while
undertaking independent educational pursuits.
Thus, lifelong learning becomes a tool for lifelong education.
CHANGING CONTEXT OF
TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE GLOBAL SCENARIO:
Teacher education is a global profession that needs to
be understood properly. It is essential to grasp a global perspective of the
profession as it is today, to make assumptions about it in the near future and
to utilize the best thinking and instructional models available in the present
times.
Professionally, powerful teaching is very important
and increasing in our contemporary society as a result of the steam of dynamic
initiatives of human development and evolution. Due to these developments and
evolution, standards of learning would be higher in the 21st century
than it has been in the 20th century. As a result teachers would
need to acquire additional knowledge and skills, both general and specific, to
be able to survive and be successful in the 21st century school
environment.
Education has increasingly become important to success
of both individuals and nations. Growing evidence demonstrates that, among all
educational resources, teachers‘abilities are especially critical contributors
to students‘learning and consequently the success of a nation to advance in its
economic, social and political spheres (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
1.
Dynamic
teacher education and training in the 21st century globalised world.
For dynamic teacher education and training in the 21st century
globalised world, teacher education and training institutions must design
programmes that would help prospective teachers to know and understand deeply;
a wide array of things about teaching and learning and in their social and
cultural contexts. Furthermore, they must be able to enact these understandings
in complex classroom situation serving increasingly diverse students. If the 21st
century teacher is to succeed at this task, teacher education and training
institutions must further design programmes that transform the kinds of
settings in which both the novices and the experienced teachers teach and
become competent teachers. This signifies that the enterprise of teacher
education and training must venture out further and further and engage even
more closely with schools in a mutual transformation agenda with all the
struggles involved. Importantly, the teacher education and training
institutions must take up the charge of educating policy makers and the general
public about what it actually takes to teach effectively both in terms of
knowledge and skills that are needed and in terms of the school contexts that
must be created to allow teachers to develop and use what they know on behalf
of their students (Fullan, 1993).
2.
Structure
of a globalised teacher education and training curricula.
Throughout the world, reform and innovation initiatives by nations have
triggered much discussion about the structures of teacher education and
training programmes (Hėbert, 2001) and certification categories into which
programmes presumably fit. Building stronger models of teacher preparation in
the 21st century would require adequate and progressive knowledge
content for teaching as well as knowledge content for the subjects that the
teacher would be required to teach. In this respect, the what‖ of teacher education and training should be the focus of the
curriculum.
The what of globalized teacher
education and training curricula
There are many ways to configure the knowledge content that teachers may
need to render their services professionally (Darling-Hammond, 2006). In
articulating the core concepts and skills that should be represented in a
common-core curriculum for teacher education and training, there is need for a
frame work to guide decisions and practice. In the United States, the National
Academy of Education Committee on Teacher Education adopted a framework that is
organised on three intersecting areas of knowledge found in many statements of
standards for teaching which would be applicable for consideration in the 21st
century teacher education and training curricula. The list below is represented
in figure 1 diagrammatically
Knowledge of learners and how they learn and develop within
social contexts, including knowledge of language development. 
Understanding of curriculum content and goals, including the
subject matter and skills to be taught in the light of disciplinary demands,
student needs and the social purposes of education; and Understanding of and skills for teaching, including content
knowledge of specific subject, content pedagogical knowledge for teaching
diverse learners, as these are informed by an understanding of assessment and of how to construct and manage
a productive classroom. 
Figure 1: Preparing Teachers for the 21st
century
The curricula should take cognisance of the
ever-changing needs of society, the globalisation scenario, the advancement and
proliferation of technology and the way traditional classroom teaching is losing
grounds for distance-virtual learning (Allen and Thomas, 2000; Kantrowitz et
al, 1987).
The content of the curricula should take account of
the 21st century classroom. Teachers should be trained on the
state-of-the-art hard and software that will become common in the 21st
century classroom. Training in technology should encompass telecommunications,
satellite access, networking, the internet, videoconferencing and digital
components as well as optical technology. These technologies will permit the 21st
century teacher in the 21st century classroom feel comfortable and
teach effectively and efficiently.
Another scenario is the changing pattern of world
employment. There are so many professions in our modern world and this will
multiply in the 21st century. The new directions in teacher
education and training should take cognisance of this so that teachers are
prepared to play multiple roles and take their rightful positions in the
teaching-learning environment to face these challenges confidently. We can only
improve the quality of education worldwide for our students if we provide our
teachers with the required skills, knowledge and experiences. One which
deserves mention is the ability of the 21st century teacher to
control disruptive behaviour of students in the classroom which makes it
impossible for the teacher to work efficiently and effectively and even in some
instances puts the security of both students and teachers at risk. Problems of
such nature may multiply in magnitude in schools in the 21st century
and for this reason, teacher education and training institutions should equip
teachers with knowledge and skills in management to be able to address such
problems effectively and efficiently.
Teacher education curricula should be inclusive and
emphasize on lifelong learning, development in technology and its applications
and strategies for planning viable alternatives to benefit students. Emphasis
should be on democratic principles and practices. The institutionalization of
democracy will make teachers see the role of schools and their contribution to
the development of democratic values, skills and behaviour from the global
perspective.
The ―how‖ of globalised teacher
education and training curricula:
The programme designs and pedagogies should attend
specifically to the how of teacher
education and training. It is important to have well-chosen courses that
include core content knowledge for
teaching and advanced research background. It is equally important to organize
prospective teachers ‘experiences so that they are able to integrate and use
their acquired knowledge in a skillful manner in the classroom, especially
incorporating research in whatever is taught so that the 21st
century teacher becomes teacher researcher at heart. Often times, this becomes
the most difficult aspect of constructing a teacher education and training
programme. The onus of the issue is that teacher education and training should
attend to both the what and how so that knowledge for teaching, in
reality, shapes the teachers‘practice and enables them to become adaptive
experts who are versatile and capable of operating effectively and efficiently
in a variety of teaching and learning environments using the tools that have
been provided to them during their training.
Lortie (1975) is of the view that accomplishing what
has been indicated above requires addressing special challenges in learning to
teach. Three interrelated issues are mentioned that learning to teach requires
that the 21st century teachers
Come to understand teaching in ways quite different from
their own experiences as students. This, Lortie refers to as the apprenticeship of observation which
refers to the learning that takes place by virtue of being a student in
traditional classroom setting. Learn not only to think
like a teacher‖ but also to ―act as
a teacher‖. This is termed by Kennedy (1999) as the problem of enactment. Professionally, teachers need to understand
and be able to do a wide variety of things simultaneously. Conclusion
Teacher education requires special
consideration in any deliberation on education because no organized education
can rise above the quality of its teachers.
Consequently, among the purpose of teacher education in the National
Policy on Education is to provide teachers with the intellectual and
professional background adequate for their assignment. As it is declared in the NPE that lifelong
education will be the basis of education policy and practice in Nigeria, the
most effective way to achieve this intention is through teacher education. In
the country, regular full-time and in-service/sandwich programmes are offered. Much effort has been made in these
programmes. But there is need to
streamline and harmonize the full-time and the part-time/sandwich programmes so
as to ensure parity in entry qualification requirements, course content and
course duration. In addition, governments, teacher education institutions and
teachers’ professional associations should join hands in teacher education so
as to afford opportunities to teachers to constantly up-date their knowledge
and skills through different innovative approaches.
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Lagos: Central Educational Service: 179-184.
Aghenta, J.A. (1992). “Operational objectives, achievements and
shortcomings in the Implementation of policies in teacher education in
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Policy and Implementation in Nigeria, Awka: The Nigeria Association For
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Cropley, A.J. & Dave, R.H. (1978). Lifelong Education and the Training of Teachers, Hamburg: UNESCO.
Dore, R. (1976), The Diplomas
Disease: Educational Qualification and Development, London: Allen &
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