THE CHALLENGES OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION OF INFORMATION RESOURCES IN NIGERIAN LIBRARY

INTRODUCTION

Conservation and preservation of deteriorating information resources in libraries has become a global phenomenon to which libraries must aggressively respond if their mission of providing information needs of their patrons would be met (Akande, 2009). Libraries acquire material to meet the informational or recreational needs of its clientele. When the material in one’s care is allowed to deteriorate unchecked or become damaged in anyway, it may be difficult and may be ultimately difficult or the information it embodies available for use. It is the responsibility of the library staff to keep these materials in good physical condition so that they are available for users at all times. Materials in many libraries and archives throughout the country are still housed in conditions that leave much to be desired (Olatokun, 2008). A large portion of information recorded on audio or videotape about important events, people, etc., has been routinely wiped out in our electronic media houses (Popoola, 2003). This is a sad situation and one that is found in many libraries of African higher institutions. The deterioration of information-bearing material has a long history. Unless something is done to stop the process, library collections deteriorate and will continue to deteriorate. This is a battle that has to be waged against to prevent the deterioration of our intellectual heritage. Preservation is the action taken to anticipate, prevent, stop, or slow deterioration. It can also be described as the art of anticipating and preventing decay (Baker, 1981).

Conservation is an act of preservation, protecting and shielding material from destructive influences that shorten their life span. The library plays a crucial role of protecting and preserving information-bearing materials from distortion, deterioration, and eventual loss because the materials are imperative. Academic libraries acquire information resources to meet the needs of their community. People use the collections as a result of increasing enrolments in higher education. There are shortages and decline in book budgets arising from the poor funding of the institutions as well as the high cost of books and other information resources. As a result, the libraries are left with damaged books, distorted tapes, scratched CDs, etc (Popoola, 2003).

THE CONSERVATION

The term ‘Conservation’ has been defined in the IFLA Principles for the Care and Handling of Library materials (2010) as “specific practices taken to slow down deterioration and prolong the life span of an object by direct intervening in its physical or chemical make-up. The composition of some of the media of storing information makes deterioration inevitable. Deterioration may set in through the natural ageing process or as a result of other factors such as chemical composition of the media of information, biological agents, environmental factors, physical agents and improper handling. There is, therefore, the need to take certain conservation measure to slow down deterioration to avoid losing these library resources. Conservation involves taking protective measures to prevent decay and consequently, the loss of library resources. It also includes taking preventive measures against agents of deterioration of books and other library resources.

THE CHALLENGES OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION OF INFORMATION RESOURCES IN NIGERIAN LIBRARY

A survey of literature on preservation and conservation of library materials in Nigeria as stated by Popoola (2003) and Olatokun (2010) revealed that the prominent inhibitors to effective and efficient preservation of information materials in Nigerian libraries, archives and record centres include the following:

(i) Inadequate Finance: Almost all Nigerian libraries, archives and information centers do not allocate adequate funds in their annual budget for the preservation and conservation of information materials in their holdings. This has really caused the low priority or lack of desired attention given to the preservation and conservation of information resources by the management of such libraries and archives.

(ii) Inadequacy of Equipment/Materials: Lack of suitable or inadequate equipment and materials contributes significantly to the present poor status of preservation and conservation of information materials in Nigerian libraries, archives and information centers. Some of the essential materials and equipment required for setting up functional conservation and restoration laboratories in Nigerian libraries and archives are not available locally (ESARBICA, 2002).

(iii) Unfavorable Government Economic Policies: The economic policies of Nigerian governments do not favour library and archival services, so preservation and conservation activities are not given the priority attention they deserve. Such economic policies include those concerning high duties and tariffs charged on imports of preservation and conservation equipment.

(iv) Tropical climate: The effects of tropical climate of excessive temperature, high relative humidity, dust, and rodents that feed on paper-based materials cause rapid deterioration and decay of information resources in Nigerian Academic Libraries and archives. These agents of rapid deterioration and decay of information materials add more to the costs associated with conservation and restoration of information materials in Nigerian libraries archives and records offices (UNESCO, 2000). Mwiyeriwa (1998) while stressing the great need for a well-established document repair and conservation units in Nigeria observes that with the exception of air, fungi, insect, and pest are more pronounced in the continent than elsewhere.

(v) Manpower and other infrastructure: For any preservation and conservation programme to succeed in libraries and archives there must be adequate and well-trained manpower (Ngulube, 2002). This is because preservation and conservation of information resources is a specialized field of knowledge that requires information professionals who understand the physical and chemical nature of the materials in their library and archive holdings. Popoola (2003) advocates the need to expose librarians and archivists to conservation and restoration practices during their training. Akussah (1991) suggests that such a training programme should include, operating environmental control, storage and housing, operating environmental systems, designing new buildings or renovation of buildings. Nigeria has not been able to train students adequately in the area of conservation and restoration of information resources due to lack of functional laboratories where students could undergo practical works. Added to this is the problem of inappropriate buildings, poor power supply and water supply that pose great threat to preservation and conservation of information resources in Nigeria (Kemoni and Wamukoya, 2000). Kemoni and Wamukoya (2000) also identified lack of information (IT) skills due to inadequate training as one of the impediments to the management of electronic records.

(vi) Lack of Preservation and Conservation Policy: Nigeria do not have or not used a national information policy which makes the formulation of preservation and conservation policies in the libraries and information centers out of the question (Wamukoya and Mutula, 2005). Kemoni (1996) reviewed the conservation programmes of archive materials in Nigeria and found that the conservation departments did not have a disaster control plan. The absence of such a plan means that in the event of a disaster, they would not be in a position to respond to the disaster with the urgency that is required.

(vii) Quality of paper and ink: The low quality of paper and ink used in the production of information materials especially library book materials and paper-based records in archives and records offices pose serious danger to preservation and conservation of information materials in Nigeria (Popoola, 2003; Mahapatra and Chakrabarti, 2003).

(viii) Maintenance culture: Nigeria generally lack maintenance culture. The managements of libraries and archives in Nigeria have poor maintenance culture of infrastructural facilities such as telephones, electricity, water supply, laboratory equipment, buildings, disaster control devices, etc meant for their preservation and conservation operations. In fact, this factor is responsible for the quick deterioration of their collections. Preventive preservation of information resources calls for constant cleaning of the library/archive building as well as information materials therein. Restoration techniques such as binding and lamination of paper-based information may be used to reduce conservation cost (Popoola, 2003).

(ix) Administrative problem: Majority of the library and archive managers concentrate much on the effective provision of information services to users. There is a lack of proper recognition of the need for preservation, conservation and restoration of information resources. They have failed to realize that preservation and conservation staff for improved job performance by providing good conditions of service (Popoola, 2003; Olatokun, 2008).

(x) Cooperative preservation and conservation venture: African countries lack cooperative preservation and conservation venture either at the regional or local level. With limited resources and diminishing budgets, African libraries and archives can undertake cooperative ventures which may involve the setting up of a joint conservation and restoration laboratory or microfilming unit. Such a venture can deal with the repair of information materials and training of conservation and restoration staff. Allied institutions like libraries or archives can pool resources together at regional or local level to establish a national preservation and conservation centre well stocked with modern equipment and materials, qualified manpower and adequate finance for the repair of damaged information resources. Kemoni (1996) supports this view; he submits that the need to set up a national preservation office in Nigeria to coordinate all preservation and conservation issues cannot be underscored. He stresses that the broad objectives of such an office will include:

a) Creating and promoting awareness on the need to preserve and conserve archival materials.

b) Organizing seminars, workshops and conferences to discuss issues related to conservation of archive materials.

c) Acting as a centre for information dissemination.

d) Soliciting for funds nationally and internationally to purchase equipment and materials.

e) Bearing responsibility for the publication of a journal where archivist can exchange ideas through their individual contributions on issues related to the preservation of archival materials.

Public enlightenment campaign: Lack of public enlightenment campaign has been the bane of poor preservation and conservation of information resources in Nigerian academic libraries. Information professionals often times criticize the government of their countries for not giving sufficient consideration to preservation and conservation of the national heritage. It must be noted that the information managers must embark on public enlightenment campaigns on the need to preserve and conserve national heritage in their countries. For proper conservation of library and archival materials in Nigeria, the consciousness of the general public and of the authorities concerned must be raised on the need for the government to prioritize preservation and conservation of the recorded knowledge.

REFERENCES

Akande SO (2009). Knowledge, perception and Attitudes of library personnel towards preservation of Information Resources in Nigerian Federal University Libraries. Library philosophy and Practice. Retrieved from http://www.vidaho.edu/mbolin.htm.on 21st January, 2011 (pdf.)

Akussah H (1991). The Preservation of Traditional Library and Archival Materials in the Harsh Ghanaian Environment. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science, 1 (1): 19-28.

Arizona (2010). Preservation Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Record, A division of Secretary of State.

Baker N (1981). Conservation and Preservation: A Problem of Library Management: A British view. Libri 31 (3): 197.

Edhebe C (2004). The Preservation and Conservation of Materials in the college of Education Library, Warri. Abraha: Delta State University.

ESARBICA (2002). Minutes of the ESARBICA Executive Board meeting held at the mountain inn. Mbabane, Swaziland 11-13 March, 2002.

IFLA-PAC China (2006) .Strategic plan 2006-2008. Retrieved 22nd December, 2010 from:

http://www.nlc.gov./cn/en/service/iflapac chinacenter/strategem.htm.

ALLOYING STOPS DISLOCATION MOVERNMENT JUSTIDIED

INTRODUCTION

Steels are mainly composed of iron and carbon and special properties are reached by introducing additional alloying elements. Stainless steels are among the most important engineering materials. They are alloy steels containing more than 12 percent Cr. Chromium forms a passive oxide film on the surface, which makes these alloys resistant against corrosion in various chemical environments (Wranglén, 1985). The main building block of ferrite stainless steels is the Fe-Cr alloy having the ferromagnetic a-Fe structure. Austenitic stainless steels form the largest sub-category of stainless steels and comprise a significant amount of Ni as well. At low temperature, these alloys exhibit a rich variety of magnetic structures as a function of chemical composition, ranging from ferromagnetic phase to spin-glass and antiferromagnetic alignments (Majumdar & Blanckenhagen, 1984). At ambient conditions, Ni changes the ferromagnetic a-Fe structure to the paramagnetic g-Fe structure.

Today austenitic stainless steels dominate the steels applications, where high corrosion resistance and excellent mechanical properties are required. The austenitic grades represent the primary choice also when nonmagnetic properties are concerned.

THE ALLOYING STOPS DISLOCATION MOVEMENT

The stress required to cause dislocation motion is orders of magnitude lower than the theoretical stress required to shift an entire plane of atoms, so this mode of stress relief is energetically favorable. Hence, the hardness and strength (both yield and tensile) critically depend on the ease with which dislocations move. Pinning points, or locations in the crystal that oppose the motion of dislocations, can be introduced into the lattice to reduce dislocation mobility, thereby increasing mechanical strength.

Dislocations may be pinned due to stress field interactions with other dislocations and solute particles, or physical barriers from grain boundaries and second phase precipitates. There are several strengthening mechanisms for metals, however the key concept to remember about strengthening of metallic materials is that it is all about preventing dislocation motion and propagation; you are making it energetically unfavorable for the dislocation to move or propagate. For a material that has been strengthened, by some processing method, the amount of force required to start irreversible (plastic) deformation is greater than it was for the original material.

In amorphous materials such as polymers, amorphous ceramics (glass), and amorphous metals, the lack of long range order leads to yielding via mechanisms such as brittle fracture, crazing, and shear band formation. In these systems, strengthening mechanisms do not involve dislocations, but rather consist of modifications to the chemical structure and processing of the constituent material.

Unfortunately, strength of materials cannot infinitely increase. Each of the mechanisms elaborated below involves some trade off by which other material properties are compromised in the process of strengthening.

An alloy:

An alloy is a metal that’s combined with other substances to create a new metal with superior properties. For example, the alloy may be stronger, harder, tougher, or more malleable than the original metal. Alloys are often thought to be a mixture of two or more metals. However, this is a misconception, as alloys can be composed of one metal and other non-metallic elements.

Using Alloying to Prevent Corrosion

We’ve seen that alloys can be created to increase a metal’s resistance to corrosion. The traditional method used to prevent corrosion was to cover the metal with a surface coating, such as polymer. This creates a barrier between the surface of the metal and the elements.

EonCoat isn’t a barrier coating. Fundamentally different from a polymer you paint on the surface of a metal, it’s a surface treatment that actually alloys the steel that it comes into contact with. Since rust starts at the surface of a metal, if the surface is alloyed, there’s nothing exposed, and therefore, no place for rust to form.

Steel can be strengthened by several basic mechanisms, the most important of which are:

1. Work hardening or strain hardening.
2. Solid solution strengthening by interstitial atoms.
3. Solid solution strengthening by substitutional atoms.
4. Refinement of grain size.
5. Effects of heat treatment on microstructures.

6. Precipitation strengthening.

7. Grain boundary strengthening.

8. Dispersion strengthening, including lamellar and random dispersed structures.

The most distinctive aspect of strengthening of iron and steel is the role of the interstitial solutes carbon and nitrogen. These elements also play a vital part in interacting with dislocations, and in combining preferentially with some of the metallic alloying elements used in steels.

The Nature of Dislocations

Plastid deformation is a measure of material strength, plastic deformation is irreversible. Therefore, the
configuration of the atoms must be changed during plastic deformation, for otherwise they would return to their
original position on unloading. If we consider shearing a single crystal as an example, it can be deformed
plastically by sliding whole layers of atoms against each other as shown in figure above for this sliding to
happen, the bonds between the atoms have to be stretched elastically until they can switch to the next atom.
The stress required for this process can be estimated and is of the order of one fifth of the shear modulus of
the crystal. The yield strength predicted this way for metallic single crystals is thus between 1GPa and 25GPa.
If we measure the strength of single crystals of pure metals, the values found are several orders of magnitudes
below this theoretical value and even lie below that of engineering alloys. Typical values are in the range of a
few mega Pascal. As single crystals always contain lattice defects, one possible explanation could be that
these are responsible for the reduced strength. If, however, the number of defects is reduced further, for
instance by a heat treatment, the yield strength becomes even smaller. Only an absolutely perfect single
crystal without any defects would possess a yield strength agreeing with the theoretical prediction. This can
only be nearly realized in so-called whiskers, which, however, are extremely small. The reason for this
spectacular failure of the theoretical prediction is that plastic deformation does not occur by sliding of complete
layers of atoms. Instead, it proceeds by a mechanism that is based on a special type of lattice defect, the
dislocations. To understand plastic deformation of metals thus requires an understanding of dislocations.

Dislocation densities

Dislocation is a lattice imperfection in a crystal structure which exerts a profound effect on a structure sensitive properties such as strength, hardness, ductility and toughness. There are two types, edge and screw or combination of both, all of which are characterized by a Burgers vector which represents the amount and direction of slip when the dislocation moves. Click on the web links provided to read further.

Transmission Electron Micrograph of                         Transmission Electron Micrograph of

Dislocations                                                                Dislocations

Grain boundaries act as an impediment to dislocation motion for the following two reasons:

•

Dislocation must change its direction of motion due to the differing orientation of grains.

•

Discontinuity of slip planes from grain 1 to grain

References

Callister, W. D. "Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9.

Bauccio, Michael (1003) ASM metals reference book. ASM International. ISBN 0-87170-478-1.

Verhoeven, John D. (2007). Steel Metallurgy for the Non-metallurgist. ASM International. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-61503-056-9. Archived from the original on 2016-05-05.

Davis, Joseph R. (1993) ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. ASM International. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-87170-496-2.

Mills, Adelbert Phillo (1922) Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties, John Wiley & sons, inc, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison

Hogan, C. (1969). "Density of States of an Insulating Ferromagnetic Alloy". Physical Review. 188 (2): 870. Bibcode:1969PhRv..188..870H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.188.870.