ENUMERATE AND EXPLAIN THE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, RELATED DISEASE WITH PREVENTION OR CONTROL METHO

INTRODUCTION

In ancient cities, wastes were thrown onto unpaved streets and roadways, where they were left to accumulate. It was not until 320 bce in Athens that the first known law forbidding this practice was established. At that time a system for waste removal began to evolve in Greece and in the Greek-dominated cities of the eastern Mediterranean. In ancient Rome, property owners were responsible for cleaning the streets fronting their property. But organized waste collection was associated only with state-sponsored events such as parades. Disposal methods were very crude, involving open pits located just outside the city walls. As populations increased, efforts were made to transport waste farther out from the cities.

After the fall of Rome, waste collection and municipal sanitation began a decline that lasted throughout the Middle Ages. Near the end of the 14th century, scavengers were given the task of carting waste to dumps outside city walls. But this was not the case in smaller towns, where most people still threw waste into the streets. It was not until 1714 that every city in England was required to have an official scavenger. Toward the end of the 18th century in America, municipal collection of garbage was begun in Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia. Waste disposal methods were still very crude, however. Garbage collected in Philadelphia, for example, was simply dumped into the Delaware River downstream from the city.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid Waste Management is defined as the discipline associated with control of generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer, processing and disposal of solid waste materials in a way that best addresses the range of public health, conservation, economics, aesthetic, engineering and other environmental considerations.

In its scope, solid waste management includes planning, administrative, financial, engineering and legal functions. Solutions might include complex inter-disciplinary relations among fields such as public health, city and regional planning, political science, geography, sociology, economics, communication and conservation, demography, engineering and material sciences.

Solid waste management practices can differ for residential and industrial producers, for urban and rural areas, and for developed and developing nations. The administration of non-hazardous waste in metropolitan areas is the job of local government authorities. On the other hand, the management of hazardous waste materials is typically the job of the generator, subject to local, national and even international authorities.

Objectives of Waste Management

The primary goal of solid waste management is reducing and eliminating adverse impacts of waste materials on human health and environment to support economic development and superior quality of life. 

ENVIRONMENTAL EP IDEMIOLOGY

Epidemiology is concerned with the study of the distribution and determinants of health and diseases, morbidity, injuries, disabi lit y, a nd mor ta lit y in popu lat ions. Epidemiologic studies are applied to the control of health problems in populations. Epidemiology is one of the core disciplines used to examine the associations between environmental hazards and health outcomes. The term environmental epidemiology refers to the study of diseases and health conditions (occurring in the population) that are linked to environmental factors.

The exposures, which most of the time are outside the control of the individual, usually may be considered involuntary and stem from ambient and occupational environments. According to this conception of environmental epidemiology, standard epidemiologic methods are used to study the association between environmental factors (exposures) and health outcomes. Examples of topics studied include air and water pollution, the occupational environment with its possible use of physical and chemical agents, and the psychosocial environment. As noted previously, for an environmentally associated health outcome to be considered a topic of environmental epidemiology, exposure factors must lie outside the individual’s immediate control. Hazards associated with smoking can be explored as an exposure dimension that is either under or not under the control of the individual. As an example of the former, studies of the health effects of smoking among individuals who smoke would not be a usual concern of environmental epidemiology. However, exposure of populations to secondhand cigarette smoke would be a concern because nonsmokers and vulnerable groups such as children cannot control whether they are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke.

Thus, traditionally, environmental epidemiology has tended to focus on health effects linked to degradation of the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. With the advances achieved during the 20th century in environmental sanitation and control of disease-causing biological organisms, attention to chemical and physical impacts upon the environment has increased. Some of the agents and environmental factors being focused on are lead toxicity, particulates from diesel exhaust, and exposures to pesticides and halogenated compounds. The last category includes polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which through biological processes can become increasingly concentrated in foodstuffs, can pose hazards as potential carcinogens, and can impact the repro ductive system. More recent concerns of environmental health include the reemerging infectious diseases (see Chapter 5) and the effects of climate changes due to global warming.

Environmental Toxicology

Environmental Toxicology is defined as the study of the fate and effects of chemicals in the environment. Although this definition would encompass toxic chemicals naturally found in the environment (i.e., animal venom, microbial and plant toxins), environmental toxicology is typically associated with the study of environmental chemicals of anthropogenic origin. Environmental toxicology can be divided into two subcategories:

 

Environmental toxicology is a relatively young field, with its origins in the mid-20th century. The modern science of toxicology, on the other hand, was born in the early 19th century, and by the later decades of that century, some scientists had begun to consider the effects of toxic substances that had been released into the environment. But awareness of environmental pollutants did not increase markedly until the publication of American biologist Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962. Despite strong opposition from the chemical industry, which felt that Carson’s work unfairly attacked their products, Carson highlighted the environmental side effects from the use of pesticides such as DDT. The book suggested that pollutants used in one area could quickly affect neighbouring areas and that the destruction of a particular part of the food chain upsets the balance of nature, leading to the destruction of an ecosystem. In 1969 scientist René Truhart coined the term ecotoxicology to describe the study of the toxic effects of pollutants on the biological components of ecosystems. Although narrower in scope, ecotoxicology played an important role in the development of environmental toxicology.

Environmental health toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of environmental chemicals on human health.

 Ecotoxicology involves the study of the adverse effects of toxicants on myriad of organisms that compose ecosystems ranging from microorganisms to top predators

Q2 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

Environmental Health is the field of science that studies how the environment influences human health and disease. “Environment,” in this context, means things in the natural environment like air, water and soil, and also all the physical, chemical, biological and social features of our surroundings. The man-made, or “built,” environment includes physical structures where people live and work such as homes, offices, schools, farms and factories, as well as community systems such as roads and transportation systems, land use practices and waste management. Consequences of human alteration to the natural environment, such as air pollution, are also parts of the man-made environment. The social environment encompasses lifestyle factors like diet and exercise, socioeconomic status, and other societal influences that may affect health.

RELATED DISEASE

BIRTH DEFECTS

Sometimes, when pregnant women are exposed to chemicals or drink a lot of alcohol, harmful substances reach the fetus. Some of these babies are born with an organ, tissue or body part that has not developed in a normal way. Aspirin and cigarette smoking can also cause birth problems. Birth defects are the leading cause of death for infants during the first year of life. * Many of these could be prevented.

PREVENTION

Plan ahead. Get 400 micrograms (mcg) of folic acid every day.

Folic acid is a B vitamin. If a woman has enough folic acid in her body at least one month before and during pregnancy, it can help prevent major birth defects of the developing brain and spine (anencephaly and spina bifida). Women can get folic acid from fortified foods or supplements, or a combination of the two, in addition to a varied diet rich in folate.

Avoid harmful substances: Avoid alcohol at any time during pregnancy.

Alcohol in a woman’s bloodstream passes to the developing baby through the umbilical cord. There is no known safe amount of alcohol use during pregnancy or while trying to get pregnant. There is also no safe time during pregnancy to drink. All types of alcohol are equally harmful, including wine and beer. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, and a range of lifelong physical, behavioral, and intellectual disabilities.

Choose a healthy lifestyle: Keep diabetes under control.

Poor control of diabetes during pregnancy increases the chances for birth defects and other problems for the pregnancy. It can also cause serious complications for the woman. Proper healthcare before and during pregnancy can help prevent birth defects and other poor outcomes.

CANCER

Cancer occurs when a cell or group of cells begins to multiply more rapidly than normal. As the cancer cells spread, they affect nearby organs and tissues in the body. Eventually, the organs are not able to perform their normal functions. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the U.S., causing more than 500,000 deaths each year. Some cancers are caused by substances in the environment: cigarette smoke, asbestos, radiation, natural and man-made chemicals, alcohol, and sunlight.

PREVENTION

Don't use tobacco:

Using any type of tobacco puts you on a collision course with cancer. Smoking has been linked to various types of cancer including cancer of the lung, mouth, throat, larynx, pancreas, bladder, cervix and kidney. Chewing tobacco has been linked to cancer of the oral cavity and pancreas. Even if you don't use tobacco, exposure to secondhand smoke might increase your risk of lung cancer.

Eat a healthy diet:

Although making healthy selections at the grocery store and at mealtime can't guarantee cancer prevention, it might help reduce your risk.

Maintain a healthy weight and be physically active

Maintaining a healthy weight might lower the risk of various types of cancer, including cancer of the breast, prostate, lung, colon and kidney.

Protect yourself from the sun

Skin cancer is one of the most common kinds of cancer and one of the most preventable.

Avoid risky behaviors

Another effective cancer prevention tactic is to avoid risky behaviors that can lead to infections that, in turn, might increase the risk of cancer.

FERTILITY PROBLEMS

Fertility is the ability to produce children. However, one in eight couples has a problem. However, more than 10 percent of couples cannot conceive after one year of trying to become pregnant.*

Infertility can be caused by infections that come from sexual diseases or from exposure to chemicals on the job or elsewhere in the environment. Researchers at The National Institute of

Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) have shown that too much caffeine in the diet can temporarily reduce a woman’s fertility. NIEHS scientists have also pinpointed the days when a woman is likely to be fertile.

PREVENTION

·         Avoid using tobacco (cigarettes) and marijuana. They reduce fertility, especially by reducing sperm counts.

·         Avoid exposure to harmful chemicals.

·         Avoid excessive alcohol use. It may damage eggs or sperm.

·         Limit sex partners and use condoms to reduce the risk of getting a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Untreated STIs can damage the reproductive system and cause infertility. If you think you may have an STI, get treatment promptly to reduce the risk of damage to your reproductive system.

GOITER (GOY-TER)

Sometimes people don’t get enough iodine from the foods they eat. This can cause a small gland called the thyroid to grow larger. The thyroid can become so large that it looks like a baseball sticking out of the front of your neck. This is called goiter. Since the thyroid controls basic functions like growth and energy, goiter can produce a wide range of effects. Some goiter patients are unusually restless and nervous. Others tend to be sluggish and lethargic. Goiter became rare after public health officials decided that iodine should be added to salt.

PREVENTION

There are no ways to prevent goiter unless it is caused by iodine deficiency. Dietary measures to prevent iodine deficiency include use of iodized table salt and consumption of rich sources of iodine such as seafood.

KIDNEY DISEASES

About 7.5 million adults have some evidence of chronic kidney disease. These diseases range from simple infections to total kidney failure. People with kidney failure cannot remove wastes and poisons from their blood. They depend on expensive kidney machines in order to stay alive. Some chemicals found in the environment can produce kidney damage. Some nonprescription drugs, when taken too often, can also cause kidney problems. Be sure to read the label and use drugs as directed.

PREVENTION

·         Drink plenty of water avoid sugary drinks like soft drinks.

·         Exercise regularly.

·         Don’t smoke.

·         Limit your alcohol intake.

·         Do things that help you relax and reduce stress.

MERCURY POISONING

Mercury is a silvery metal that is extremely poisonous. Very small amounts can damage the kidneys, liver and brain. Years ago, workers in hat factories were poisoned by breathing the fumes from mercury used to shape the hats. Remember the “Mad Hatter” in Alice in Wonderland? Today, mercury exposure usually results from eating contaminated fish and other foods that contain small amounts of mercury compounds. Since the body cannot get rid of mercury, it gradually builds up inside the tissues. If it is not treated, mercury poisoning can eventually cause pain, numbness, and weak muscles, loss of vision, paralysis and even death.

PREVENTION

·         Be choosy with your sushi choices. Many popular sushi rolls are made with mercury-containing fish.

·         Be on the lookout for fish advisories in your area. This is especially useful if you fish for your own seafood.

·         Take a blood mercury test before conceiving.

·         Wash your hands right away if you think you’ve been exposed to other forms of mercury.

NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS

The nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord and nerves, commands and controls our thoughts, feelings, movements, and behavior. The nervous system consists of billions of nerve cells. They carry messages and instructions from the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. When these cells are damaged by toxic chemicals, injury or disease, this information system breaks down. This can result in disorders ranging from mood changes and memory loss to blindness, paralysis and death. Proper use of safety devices such as seat belts, child restraints and bike helmets can prevent injuries and save lives.

XERODERMA PIGMENTOSA (ZERO-DER-MUH PIG-MEN-TOSE-UH)

Xeroderma is a rare condition that people inherit from their parents. When these people are exposed to direct sunlight, their skin breaks out into tiny dark spots that look like freckles. If this condition is not treated, the spots can become cancerous. These areas must then be removed by a surgeon.