IDENTIFY AND DISCUSS 3 MAJOR THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

INTRODUCTION

In the 1980s and 1990s, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the idea of not one kind of intelligence but eight, which are relatively independent of one another. These eight types of intelligence are:

1. Linguistic: spoken and written language skills
2. Logical–mathematical: number skills
3. Musical: performance or composition skills
4. Spatial: ability to evaluate and analyze the visual world
5. Bodily-kinesthetic: dance or athletic abilities
6. Interpersonal: skill in understanding and relating to others
7. Intrapersonal: skill in understanding the self
8. Nature: skill in understanding the natural world

Gardner believes that each of these domains of intelligence has inherent value but that culture and context may cause some domains to be emphasized over others. Critics of the idea of multiple intelligences maintain that these abilities are talents rather than kinds of intelligence.

Charles Spearman: General Intelligence

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed.

General Intelligence

General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to the existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures. Charles Spearman first described the existence of general intelligence in 1904. According to Spearman, this g factor was responsible for overall performance on mental ability tests. Spearman noted that while people certainly could and often did excel in certain areas, people who did well in one area tended also to do well in other areas.

For example, a person who does well on a verbal test would probably also do well on other tests.

Those who hold this view believe that intelligence can be measured and expressed by a single number, such as an IQ score. The idea is that this underlying general intelligence influences performance on all cognitive tasks.

General intelligence can be compared to athleticism. A person might be a very skilled runner, but this does not necessarily mean that they will also be an excellent figure skater. However, because this person is athletic and fit, they will probably perform much better on other physical tasks than an individual who is less coordinated and more sedentary.

Spearman and General Intelligence

Charles Spearman was one of the researchers who helped develop a statistical technique known as factor analysis. Factor analysis allows researchers to a number of different test items that can measure common abilities.

For example, researchers might find that people who score well on questions that measure vocabulary also perform better on questions related to reading comprehension.

Spearman believed that general intelligence represented an intelligence factor underlying specific mental abilities. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether they related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g-factor.

Many modern intelligence tests, including the Stanford-Binet, measure some of the cognitive factors that are thought to make up general intelligence. These include visual-spatial processing, quantitative reasoning, knowledge, fluid reasoning, and working memory.

• Visual-spatial processing involves such abilities as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes.
• Quantitative reasoning involves the capacity to solve problems that involve numbers.
• Knowledge involves a person's understanding of a wide range of topics.
• Fluid reasoning involves the ability to think flexibly and solve problems.
• Working memory involves the use of short-term memory such as being able to repeat a list of items.

Challenges to the Concept of General Intelligence

The notion that intelligence could be measured and summarized by a single number on an IQ test was controversial during Spearman's time and has remained so over the decades since. Some psychologists, including L.L. Thurstone, challenged the concept of a g-factor. Thurstone instead identified a number of what he referred to as "primary mental abilities."

More recently, psychologists such as Howard Gardner have challenged the notion that a single general intelligence can accurately capture all of human mental ability.

Gardner instead proposed that different multiple intelligences exist. Each intelligence represents abilities in a certain domain such as visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-linguistic intelligence, and logical-mathematical intelligence.

Research today points to an underlying mental ability that contributes to performance on many cognitive tasks. IQ scores, which are designed to measure this general intelligence, are also thought to influence an individual's overall success in life. However, while IQ can play a role in academic and life success, other factors such as childhood experiences, educational experiences, socioeconomic status, motivation, maturity, and personality also play a critical role in determining overall success.

Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence, such as in the IQ test, are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct types of intelligence based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures.

The eight kinds of intelligence Gardner described are:

• Visual-spatial intelligence
• Verbal-linguistic intelligence
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
• Logical-mathematical intelligence
• Interpersonal intelligence
• Musical intelligence
• Intrapersonal intelligence
• Naturalistic intelligence

When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to mind. Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something that can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change. In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged. One such conception is the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences," where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences." Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence."

In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical, interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.

While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he or she most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal, musical, and naturalistic intelligence.

Criticism

Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research.

Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate Gardner’s theory into the classroom.

Learning more about the multiple intelligences can help you better understand your own strengths. Continue reading to learn more about the major characteristics of each type of intelligence, and if you still aren't sure which type describes you best, this quiz can help you figure it out.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.

Characteristics

Characteristics of visual-spatial intelligence include:

• Enjoys reading and writing
• Good at putting puzzles together
• Good at interpreting pictures, graphs, and charts
• Enjoys drawing, painting, and the visual arts
• Recognizes patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Architect
• Artist
• Engineer

Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

Strengths: Words, language, and writing
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading.

Characteristics

Characteristics of linguistic-verbal intelligence include:

• Good at remembering written and spoken information
• Enjoys reading and writing
• Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches
• Able to explain things well
• Often uses humor when telling stories

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Writer/journalist
• Lawyer
• Teacher

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.

Characteristics 

Characteristics of logical-mathematical intelligence include:

• Excellent problem-solving skills
• Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas
• Likes conducting scientific experiments
• Good at solving complex computations

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Scientist
• Mathematician
• Computer programmer
• Engineer
• Accountant

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Strengths: Physical movement, motor control
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.

Characteristics

Characteristics of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include:

• Good at dancing and sports
• Enjoys creating things with his or her hands
• Excellent physical coordination
• Tends to remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Dancer
• Builder
• Sculptor
• Actor

Musical Intelligence

Strengths: Rhythm and music
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.

Characteristics

Characteristics of musical intelligence include:

• Enjoys singing and playing musical instruments
• Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily
• Good at remembering songs and melodies
• Rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Musician
• Composer
• Singer
• Music teacher
• Conductor

Interpersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them.

Characteristics

Characteristics of interpersonal intelligence include:

• Good at communicating verbally
• Skilled at nonverbal communication
• Sees situations from different perspectives
• Creates positive relationships with others
• Good at resolving conflict in groups

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Psychologist
• Philosopher
• Counselor
• Salesperson
• Politician

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.

Characteristics

Characteristics of intrapersonal intelligence include:

• Good at analyzing his or her strengths and weaknesses
• Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas
• Excellent self-awareness
• Clearly understands the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Philosopher
• Writer
• Theorist
• Scientist

aturalistic Intelligence

Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.

Characteristics

Characteristics of naturalistic intelligence include:

• Interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology
• Good at categorizing and cataloging information easily
• May enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
• Doesn’t enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Biologist
• Conservationist
• Gardener
• Farmer

Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which involves three different factors:

• Analytical intelligence: Your problem-solving abilities.
• Creative intelligence: Your capacity to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.
• Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment.

Robert Jeffrey Sternberg is an American psychologist known for his theories on love, intelligence and creativity. He was born in New Jersey on December 9, 1949. Sternberg's interest in psychology began early in life. After suffering from test anxiety and doing poorly on an exam, he realized that the test was not an accurate measure of his actual knowledge and abilities.

When he retook the same test in a different room with a group of younger students, he found that he felt more confident and was scored much higher as a result. The next year, Sternberg developed his very first intelligence test, which he named the Sternberg Test of Mental Ability (STOMA).

His later academic experiences further demonstrated that standard tests were often poor measures of mental abilities. He actually performed so poorly in his Introductory Psychology class that his professor advised him to pursue a different major. Undeterred, Sternberg went on to graduate from Yale with a bachelor's in psychology in 1972 and earned his Ph.D. from Stanford in 1975.

Career

After earning his degree, Sternberg returned to Yale as a professor of psychology. He later became the Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences at Tufts University. He was a professor of psychology at Oklahoma State University, and later president and professor of psychology and education at the University of Wyoming.

He is currently professor of human development in the College of Human Ecology at Cornell University.

Sternberg is perhaps best known for his research on intelligence, love, cognitive styles and creativity. His triarchic theory of intelligence focuses on what he refers to as "successful intelligence" which is composed of three elements: analytical intelligence (or problem-solving abilities), creative intelligence (using prior knowledge and skills to deal with new situations) and practical intelligence (the ability to adapt to a changing world).

Sternberg is also known for his research on love. His triangular theory of love identifies commitment, passion and intimacy as the three main components of love. When these three elements are combined in various ways, they result in different types of love. For example, passionate love is composed of passion and intimacy, while compassionate love is a mix of intimacy and commitment.

"Successfully intelligent people discern their strengths and weaknesses, and then figure out how to capitalize on their strengths, and to compensate for or remediate their weaknesses. Successfully intelligent individuals succeed in part because they achieve a functional balance among a "triarchy" of abilities…Moreover, all of these abilities can be further developed."

Contributions to Psychology

Sternberg served as the President of the American Psychological Association in 2003 and has won numerous awards including the Distinguished Scholar Award from the National Association for Gifted Children in 1985, the James McKeen Cattell Award from the American Psychological Society in 1999 and the E.L. Thorndike Award for Achievement in Educational Psychology from the APA in 2003.

Theory of Intelligence # 6. R. B. Cattell’s Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence:

According to R.B. Cattell, general intelligence is composed of two factors fluid intelligence (G) and crystallized intelligence (Gc). This is similar to Vernon’s distinction of intelligence A which is product of heredity and intelligence B, which is due to environment. Fluid intelligence, like ‘intelligence A’, depends more on heredity and crystallized ability on environment.

Both types of ability are concerned with the ability to perceive relationships, fluid-ability is general to many fields, and crystallized intelligence is specific to certain fields, like school learning. Fluid intelligence is used more in tasks requiring adaptation to new situations, while crystallized intelligence is used to tasks where habits have become fixed. He applied oblique rotations in his factor analysis. These two factors fluid and crystallized intelligence are distinct but correlated.

Jean Piaget has given a theory of intelligence (cognitive development), not based on factor analysis. He believes that cognitive development takes place in a series of four stages – Sensory motor stage (up to 2 years) when the child learns to exercise simple reflexes and coordinate various perceptions, leading to general operational stage (from 11 to 15 years). During adolescence the child can perform more abstract operation. Intelli­gence increases up to the date of 15 years, it is achievement that increases after 15 years, intelligence, according to him, is the ability to solve new problems.

REFERENCE

Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Successful Intelligence. New York: Simon & Schuster. (Paperback edition: New York: Dutton, 1997).

Sternberg, R.

J., & Spear-Swerling, L. (1996). Teaching for Thinking. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Thinking Styles. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1999). The Theory of Successful Intelligence. Review of General Psychology, 3, 292-316

Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2000). Teaching for Successful Intelligence. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Training and Publishing Inc.

Sternberg, R. J. (2007). Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Gardner H. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books; 1999.

Gardner H. A Multiplicity of Intelligences. Published 2004.

Gardner H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books; 1983.

Gardner H. On the Three Faces of Intelligence. Daedalus.Winter 2002;131(1):139-142.