CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The
world is to day celebrating the improvements in communication technologies
which has broadened the scope of communication through information and communication
technologies (ICTs). These (ICTs) includes: Internet, cable data transmission
and computer assisted equipment. Social network is a social structure made up
of individual or organization called “Nodes” which are tied (Connected) by one
or more specific types of interdependency, such as friendship, kinship, common
interest, financial exchange, dislike, sexual relationships or relationship of
beliefs knowledge or prestige (Adeboye, 2012). Social network can also be
referred to as a map of specified tied, such as friendship, between the nodes being
studied. The nodes to which an individual is connected, are the social
contracts of that individual; the network can also be used to measure social
capital the value that an individual gets from the social network. Social
network sites include: Yahoo Messenger, Facebook Messenger, Blackberry
Messenger (BBM), Goggle talk, Goggle messenger, iPhone, androids and so on.
These networking sites are used by most people to interact with old and new
friends, physical or internet friends (Adeboye, 2012).
The
expansion in technology has affected internet software, leading to chatting
sites known by the name “Social media”. With social networking sites one can
send and receive messages almost immediately, however, lack of regulation of
the internet has led to its excessive use. One of the fundamental aspect of
information and communication technology that contribute interactions with
social media in different endeavour in small measure to the speedy development
of human society worldwide. Moreover, this type of technology that human race
develop various skills of creating, storing interactions and disseminating
information. General speaking, in this modern world of information and
technology no teacher or learner could function effectively without the
required skill of technological equipment used of social media. (Adeboye, 2012).
This perhaps is what promotes Njoku et al (2006) to declare that in this
current information the teachers and learners roles functions have radically
changed from teacher as provider of knowledge
and schools were teachers and learners meet and now transforming into knowledge
infrastructure in which leaners are provided with laboratories, radio,
television, computer, internet and other resources to acquire knowledge under
guidance of teachers and those multimedia materials are now replacing textbook
and other learning materials. Social media usage by student is so rampant
recently because of easy access to devices such as smart phones, iPhones.
Blackberry, table’s I-pad and laptop which are connected to the
internet/addition to the usage of social media has extremely increased in
recent times. The perils of its effects on the academic performance of over
involved student are a great concern. Student that spend excessive time on
social media network become dependent on it and is believed that their academic
performance diminishes proportionately (Kubey, 2001).
Social
media is the use of Facebook, Twitter, and space and linked in for the purpose
of communication, sharing photos as well as Videos. However, for prosper of
this study social media is captured within the use of internet through
Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, Skype, my space as well as yahoo messenger, for
communication sharing of photos and Videos by users. What started out as hobby
for some computer literate people has become social norm and way of life for
people from all over the world. Teenagers and young adults have especially
embraced these sites as a way to connect with their peers. They share
information, reinvent their personalities, and show case their social life which made them to spend excessive times on
social network sites have the same key aspect, the cultures and responses
around them that became apparent are varied, most sites help stranger connect
with other bases share personal interest, political and economic views, or
simply recreational activities. Some sites accommodate distinct viewers while
other attract people based on similarities such as common language, or shares
religious racial, nationality based identity. (Boyd, 2012).
Many
students always log into their account of Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Snap
chat, Viber, avocado chat etc., as part of their everyday routine. Could you
imagine the number of individuals’ students logging into the social networking
site, everyday? That would be mission of students logging. This is why many
students have been blaming various social network of their steady decreased in
grade point average. This lead to emergent of phenomenon around to look into
social networking sties and why they affect fellow student academic
performance. The study criticized seriously the obsessive attitude of Nigeria
youths towards social media it pointed out that the rate at which youths devote
their quality time chatting, calls for urgent attention. The study also
observed that some students always busy pinging and chatting while teaching
goes on. Time ought to be channelled towards learning, academic research and
innovations have been wasted by the passion of meeting friends and discussing
trivial issues, hence, most students faced academic setbacks. The issue of
social media and academic performance of senior secondary schools had raised
eyebrows on academic performance as a result of available opportunities to be
harnessed from social media students who had used social media study less and
generate lower grade. In the past years, social media website have become
common, giving people a new way to interact with each other and communicate
with world. Social networking become popular between 2004 and 2006, after
Facebook and my space were created. Facebook e.g. has over 500 million members
and it is still growing.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
This
study is about issue of social media and academic performance of public senior
secondary schools students of Kano state (A case study of Nassarawa Zone
Educational Area). The intention is to find out the solutions to the problems
of social media and academic performance. It will also look into the present
system of education. Also, there have been a lot of debates on various platform
and media statement that social media has this specific call effect on
education in every society. Some of these studies found a drop in student
grades and academic performance and lack of time for studies as consequences of
social media network participating, preliminary investigation and interviewer
with some teachers and students in Nassarawa Zonal Education with relation to
students’ participation on social media network. These includes: high addiction
rate among student which affects their time of study, through wrong usage of
grammar and spelling in social media as well as distracting students from their
studies. These poor performances have significantly affected the education
sector negatively. A major contributor to these poor performances could be well
as a result of the advent of the social media at it has unduly influenced the
Kano State both public senior secondary schools level. The problem facing by
students’ academic performance are followed by necessary investigation (Boyd
2012).
Many
student have total concentration for searching in social media not because of
the studies, students take more time and spending three – four hours in every
night for just social media, Parental attitudes causes or problems about the
students, by giving them handsets to allowed their children to engage in social
media and more playing of games in social media through handset while the
lesson is conducted by the teacher. Nowadays many students around the ages of
15 – 18 concentrate all their life using social media, even during the
examination time. Therefore, it is against this background that it has become
necessary to conduct this research aimed to investigate the effect of social
media and academic performance of public Senior Secondary Students of Kano
State (A case study of Nassarawa Zonal Education area).
1.3 Research Questions
This
study intends to answer the following questions.
1. What
are the available social media sites operating in Nassarawa Zonal Education
area?
2. Do
public senior secondary schools students of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area use
social media?
3. What
are the levels of access and extent to social media sites within Nassarawa
Zonal Education area?
4. What
are the effects of social media on academic performance of public senior
secondary schools students in Nassarawa Zonal Education area?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The
study has the followings objectives:
1. To
find out the available social media sites operating in Nassarawa Zonal
Education area.
2. To
find out whether public senior secondary schools students of Nassarawa Zonal
Education area use social media.
3. To
find out the levels of access and extent to social media sites within Nassarawa
Zonal Education area.
4. To
find out the effects of social media on academic performance of public senior
secondary schools students in Nassarawa Zonal Education area.
1.5 Significance of the Study
In
this study, the social media and the academic performance of public senior secondary
school students of Nassarawa Zonal Education area, the study will be immersed
the importance to students, parents, school administrators, policy makers and
fellow researchers.
Students
will benefits with the study to know the negative effect of going too much time
and undue attention to social media to the detriment of academics. Parents will benefit also from finding with a
view to knowing their responsibilities towards arresting the problem of their
children engaged in social media sites for the betterment and society’s
progress and school administrators will benefit from the study in their tasks
of participation in educational objective and implementation.
Policy
makers have significantly benefits which could be as guide information for
decision making and the student’s progress, ministry of education though is
part of government but it would have benefit from the study in tackle the
in-efficient of the students’ performance toward the set goals. The outcome of
the study would also be of good benefits for researchers in education, who have
the similar issues (Under investigation) as a source of literature and
reference may also use it as a stepping stone in conducting further similar
researcher in other Zonal Education areas of the State or elsewhere.
1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The
research will focuses on the use of social media which constitute an emergency
approach towards enhancing academic performance of public senior secondary
school students in Nassarawa Zonal Education area. The research work was
limited to only School Secondary Students in some selected public senior
secondary schools in Nassarawa Zonal Education area.
Therefore,
Nursery Schools, Primary Schools, and Junior Secondary Schools will not be
included. In addition to this, private schools higher institutions, Adult
education and other community learning centres are not involved or delimited in
the study.
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms
Academic:
Can be described as things that relate to work done in schools, collages, and
universities, especially work which involves studying and reasoning rather than
practice or technical skills.
Performance:
Is the accomplishment of a given task measures against present known standards
of accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed in a contract, performance is deemed
to be the fulfilment of an obligation, in a manager that release the
performance from all liabilities under the contract.
Academic performance:
Is the extent to which a student, teacher or school has achieved their short or
long-term educational goals.
Social:
Can be describe as living organisms including human are social when they live
collectively in interacting populations, whether they are aware of it, or not.
Media:
Is a communication channels through which news, entertainment of Education,
data or promotional message are disseminated.
Social media:
Social media is a websites and applications which links many people whether
children, Adult, Female, Male, youth and old for sharing information and
communication, by sending through audio, visual, and messages. There are
internet application (Like Facebook, Whatsapp Twitter, U-tube, Link Estagram).
Internet:
The internet sometimes called simply “the net” is a worldwide system of
computer networks. A networks in which users at any one computer can, if they
have permission get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk
directly to users other computer).
Social Network:
Is an online platform people use to build social network or social relation
with other people who share similar personal or career interest, activities,
and background or real-life connections.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter present an overview of social media and
academic performance based primarily on findings from the literature review,
conceptual framework, theoretical review with the empirical review of the
related literature and summary of the study. It includes a brief description of
social media, highlights how public senior secondary school students of
Nassarawa zonal education area, presents the demographics effect of social
media and academic performance of public senior secondary school of Nassarawa
zonal education area, and describe to
measuring the effect of these applications.
2.2 Conceptual frame work
The
advanced and improved usage of social media platforms such as Facebook has
become a worldwide phenomenon for quite some time. Though it all started been a
hobby for several computer literates individual has changed to become a social
norm and existence-style for students around the world (Nicole, 2007).
According to Nicole (2007), students and teenagers have especially recognized
these social media platforms to be able to contact their peers, share information,
reinvent their personal and showcase their social live. Social media users
often experience poor academic performance in public senior secondary schools
of Nassarawa zonal education area. Also Karpinski (2009) stated that social
media has a negative association with students’ academic performance which is
much greater than the advantages derived through the use of social media
platforms. Students around Nassarawa Zonal Area have been addicted to the
internet which has given rise to more students using social media more often
than before. Aron (2008) advised and recommended that those who are addicted
users love to use the internet to set back their personal and professional
responsibilities in which the final outcome is poor academic performance. It
was highlighted in the finding of Karpinski (2009) that social media platforms
(Facebook, WhatsApp etc.) students usually devote lesser time to their studies
has to compared to nonstudents did and subsequently has lower Performance. It
was also mentioned by Wuro (2012), that among the major distraction of current
generation that social media platform (such Facebook, WhatsApp etc.) remains a
major distractions. According to Kubey, Lavin, and Barrows (2001), there is a
correlation between academic performance and the dependency on social media
platforms.
Researchers
have conducted different studies to find out the effect of social media and
academic performance among public senior secondary school of Nassarawa Zonal
education Area, for instance a study on ‘’effect of Social media on Students academic
performance’’, stated that social platforms have negative effect on students. According
to the outcome, students’ academic performance is affected the more they use
social media, Social media platforms are mainly used by students for
socializing activities rather than academic purpose (Oye 2012). In addition
(Oye 2012) said that majority of students feel that social media platforms have
positive effect on academic growth. In a different research conducted by Shana
(2012) it was ascertain that students use social media platforms mainly for
chatting and making friends. ‘’The consequences of internet and social media
platforms on students’ academic growth’’ a study done by Young (2006) it was
seen that internet has spread its wings to reach teenager’s school life. It was
also observed by Young that students are more dependent on internet to access
information that pertain their academic life as well as entertainment.
Additionally, Young said that internet, though take a lot of time, and have
less effect on studies. It was observed by Wang (2011) that effect of social media
platforms rest on the degree of usage. Jeong (2005) observed that internet
addiction is significantly and negatively related to students’ academic growth,
as well as emotional attributes. Seo (2004) confirms Jeong statement when he
opined that the negative influence of internet is only on excessive students and
not on all students. Rather (2013) avers that: the social media platforms which
are being used today with great desire and enthusiasm have altered the way of
using internets in this modern age by
defining online tools and utilities which allow students for communication,
participation and collaboration of information online. Today’s young
generation, especially teens and youth are using technology through innovative
ways due to which they are referred to as millennial and have changed the way
they think, work and communicate even though they are in formative years of
their life. Today’s youth because of social platforms have become technology
addicts and are quite withdrawn.
2.2.1 Social Media
A social is a
website that allows people with similar interests to come together and share
information, photos and videos. People engaged in social
networking may be doing so as a personal or a business endeavor.
Those who engage on social network sites as a personal endeavor interact by
using various forms of media to discuss their lives and interests. The most
popular social networks for this type of familiar interaction include Facebook,
Google+
and Twitter.
Although these and other social networks may be used for business purposes
especially marketing social networks exist specifically for enterprise
social networking. Popular enterprise social network platforms
include Social cast
and Yammer.
Ideally, employees who are tasked with participating on social networks are
provided with a social media
policy so there is no ambiguity about what management considers to
be acceptable
use. Parsons, T. (1968). The basis of Luhmann’s ideas about society
is the concept of self-reproducing systems, proposed by the Chilean
neurophysiologists H. Maturana and F. Varela. Such systems are understood as systems
consisting of components and relationships that reproduce both the elements and
the connections between them by means of their own actions, i.e., the
operations relating to the system itself and not to the world around it.
Self-reproduction or self-preferentiality is possible only if there is a
difference between the system and the environment. In this case, the system can
be anything that is capable of autopoiesis, i.e., anything that is
self-sufficient and able to reproduce itself, distinguishing itself from the
environment. Social systems are the most complex systems that reproduce
themselves through communication and are aimed at finding meaning as a
difference between the system and the environment. This reproduction,
interpreted as auto-poises, consists in the creation of semantic structures. Communication
is the bedrock of reproduction. Thus, it can be said that Luhmann appeals to
semantic communication, to meaning that has three fundamental dimensions:
material, temporal, and social. The material dimension distinguishes between
“this and that,” which makes it possible to identify reality as an object.
The temporal dimension distinguishes between “past and
future” and allows one to consider reality as temporal process. Finally, the
social dimension distinguishes between “Ego and Alter ego.” It provides all manifestations
of meaning with address coordinates that are necessary for the existence of
social systems. As a result, society is considered as a system that is constructed
by meaning through communication. This is a radical change: if society was
previously seen by sociologists as a set of individuals, now it is seen as a
system consisting only of communications. The reproduction of the social system
by itself is Luhmann’s idea of communication, which is a process of triple selection:
information, communication, and understanding. Information is interpreted by Luhmann
as an event that determines the state of the system. First, upon being
manifested, it does not disappear without a trace, but leaves a structural
effect, changing the state of the system. Secondly, information does not come
from outside and is not “transmitted,” it can only be a result of the operations
of self-referential systems that respond to changes in their own states. Thirdly,
information is neither experienced nor gained. A message is the main dynamic
element of communication that determines the temporal communication f low. A
message in this context is a selection of what should be distributed.
Finally, understanding is interpreted as the
distinction between information and a message. As a result, understanding is a
selection from the selection: first we choose what to say when forming a
message, and then we select information from the message we hear and understand.
a) User-based:
Before social networks like Facebook or MySpace became the norm, websites were
based on content that was updated by one user and read by Internet visitors.
The flow of information was in a single direction, and the direction of future
updates was determined by the webmaster, or writer. Online social networks, on
the other hand, are built and directed by users themselves. Without the users,
the network would be an empty space filled with empty forums, applications, and
chat rooms. Users populate the network with conversations and content. The
direction of that content is determined by anyone who takes part in the
discussion. This is what make social networks so much more exciting and dynamic
for Internet users.
b) Interactive:
Another characteristic of modern social networks is the fact that they are so
interactive. This means that a social network is not just a collection of
chatrooms and forums anymore. Websites like Facebook
are filled with network-based gaming applications, where you can play poker
together or challenge a friend to a chess tournament. These social networks are
quickly becoming a pastime that more people are choosing over television -
because it's more than just entertainment, it's a way to connect and have fun
with friends.
c) Community-driven:
Social networks are built and thrive from community concepts. This means that
just like communities or social groups around the world are founded on the fact
that members hold common beliefs or hobbies, social networks are based on the
same principle. Within most modern online social networks today, you'll find
sub-communities of people who share commonalities, such as alumni of a
particular high school, or an animal welfare group. Not only can you discover
new friends within these interest based communities, but you can also reconnect
with old friends that you lost contact with many years ago.
d) Relationships:
Unlike the websites of the past, social networks thrive on relationships. The
more relationships that you have within the network, the more established you
are toward the center of that network. Like the concept most pyramid schemes
are focused on, within online social networks, the concept really works in a
powerful way. When you have just 20 contacts and you publish a note or an
update on that page, that content proliferates out across a network of contacts
and sub-contacts that's much larger than you may realize.
e) Emotion over content:
Another unique characteristic of social networks is the emotional factor. While
websites of the past were focused primarily on providing information to a
visitor, the social network actually provides users with emotional security and
a sense that no matter what happens, their friends are within easy reach.
Whether suffering through divorce, break-up or any other family crisis, people
are finding that the ability to jump online and communicate directly with a
circle of friends provides a great deal of support in an otherwise unmanageable
situation.
i.
Media
The term media
is defined as "one of the means or channels of general communication in
society, as newspapers, radio, television etc." The beginning of human
communication through designed channels, i.e. not vocalization
or gestures, dates back to ancient cave paintings,
drawn maps,
and writing.
The Persian Empire (centred on present-day Iran) played an important
role in the field of communication. It has the first real mail or postal system,
which is said to have been developed by the Persian emperor Cyrus the
Great after his conquest of Medes. The role of the
system as an intelligence gathering apparatus is well
documented, and the service was (later) called angariae, a term that in
time turned to indicate a tax system. The Old Testament
(Esther,
VIII) makes mention of this system: Ahasuerus,
king of Medes, used couriers for communicating his decisions.
ii.
Communication
The word communication
is derived from the Latin
root communicare. This was due to the Roman Empire
also devising what might be described as a mail or postal system, in
order to centralize control of the empire from Rome. This allowed for personal
letters and for Rome to gather knowledge about events in its many
widespread provinces. More advanced postal systems later appeared in the
Islamic Caliphate
and the Mongol Empire during the Middle Ages.
The term media in its modern application relating to communication
channels is traced back to its first use as such by Canadian communications
theorist Marshall McLuhan, who stated in Counterblast
(1954): "The media are not toys; they should not be in the hands of Mother
Goose and Peter Pan executives. They can be entrusted only to new artists,
because they are art forms." By the mid-1960s, the term had spread to general
use in North America and the United Kingdom. (Mass media, in contrast,
was, according to H.L. Mencken, used as early as 1923 in the
United States.). Media are the
channel that marketers and advertisers used to convey a message to your market
goal, therefore, the choice of the means to be used in an advertising campaign
is a decision of the utmost importance because it has a direct impact on the
results that are obtained with it. Therefore, both marketers and advertisers
need to know what are the different types of media, what are and what are their
advantages and disadvantages, with the aim that can make the best decisions
when selecting the media to be used.
iii. Media types:
Firstly, it should be noted that the media are divided,
in general, in three large groups (according to the types of media covering):
a)
Mass
media: They are those that affect a greater number of people at any given time.
They are also known as measured media.
b)
Ancillary
or complementary: these affect a smaller number of people at any given time.
They are also known as non-measured media.
c)
Alternative
media: They are those new ways of promotion of products, some ordinary and
other very innovative.
Second, each of these groups includes a variety of media
types, as you can see in detail below:
iv. Mass media:
Within this group are the following types of media: Television: It is a mass audiovisual medium that enables advertisers to deploy all his creativity because they can combine image, sound and movement. According to Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, television stations include television (ABC, CBS, NBC and Fox Network) network, independent stations, the cable TV and a relative newcomer, direct broadcast satellite television. Their main advantages are: good coverage of mass market; low-cost exposure; combines picture, sound and movement; appeal to the senses. Its main limitations include: high absolute costs; high saturation; ephemeral exhibition, less selectivity of public.
v. Radio:
It is a medium "audio only" which today is
regaining its popularity. According to Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, listening to
the radio has had a parallel to the population growth primarily by its
immediate, portable nature that engages as well with a fast lifestyle. In
addition, according to the above authors, the radio tend to turn on the radio
on a regular basis and at predictable times. Most popular hours are the
"hours of driving", when those who are in your vehicle are a vast
auditorium captive. Their main advantages are: good local acceptance;
geographical selectivity high and demographic; low cost. In addition, it is
quite economical compared to other media and is an adaptable medium, i.e. can
change the message quickly. Its main limitations are: audio only; fleeting
exposure; low attention (is the way heard half); fragmented audiences. Newspapers:
Are massive, ideal visual media for local advertisers. Their main advantages
are: flexibility; today; good coverage of local markets; broad acceptability;
high credibility. They are also accessible to small businesses who wish to
advertise. Its main limitations and disadvantages include: short life; low
quality of reproduction; few readers of the same exemplary physical and not is
selective with regard to socio-economic groups.
vi. Magazines: They are a visual medium "masivo selective"
because they target specialized audiences, but on a massive scale, which allows
them to reach more potential customers. According to Laura Fischer and Jorge
Espejo, are comfortable reading in addition to the variety of ads they enable:
1.
Deployed:
Ads that Cleave in 3 or 4 pages.
2.
Gate
Folder: Similar to the previous one but this is removable.
3.
Booklets:
Removable in booklet ads.
4.
Cuponeo:
Removable coupon, as well as the print ad.
5.
Sampling:
When the advertisement is a small sample of the product.
Their main advantages
are: geographical selectivity and high demographic; credibility and prestige;
high quality reproduction; several readers the same exemplary physical and long
life.
Its limitations are: long ahead of time to buy an ad; high cost; there is no guarantee of position.
Internet: today, the internet is a selective, and interactive audiovisual media that depending on the type of product and audience that is aimed, can reach a good part of our potential customers.
To use this medium, advertisers need to place a website on the net to present their products and services. Then, should promote it (to attract the largest number of visitors interested in what you offer), first positioning among the top results of search of the main search engines (Google, Yahoo, Altavista, MSN) to reach 85% of people who use these resources to find what you are looking for on the internet; and second, by placing on other websites (direct or indirectly related products or services), one or more of the following advertising: banners, buttons, pop-ups and pop-under, text messages and others, in order to attract the largest number of interested people.
The advantages of this medium are: high selectivity; cost low; immediate impact; interactive capabilities. Its main limitations include: small public; relatively low impact; the audience controls exposure or film: is a mass audiovisual medium that allows you to reach a large group of people "captive" as with low selectivity. Its advantages are: captive audience and greater sharpness color ads. Its disadvantages include: little selective in terms of sex, age and socioeconomic status, and is quite expensive.
Its limitations are: long ahead of time to buy an ad; high cost; there is no guarantee of position.
Internet: today, the internet is a selective, and interactive audiovisual media that depending on the type of product and audience that is aimed, can reach a good part of our potential customers.
To use this medium, advertisers need to place a website on the net to present their products and services. Then, should promote it (to attract the largest number of visitors interested in what you offer), first positioning among the top results of search of the main search engines (Google, Yahoo, Altavista, MSN) to reach 85% of people who use these resources to find what you are looking for on the internet; and second, by placing on other websites (direct or indirectly related products or services), one or more of the following advertising: banners, buttons, pop-ups and pop-under, text messages and others, in order to attract the largest number of interested people.
The advantages of this medium are: high selectivity; cost low; immediate impact; interactive capabilities. Its main limitations include: small public; relatively low impact; the audience controls exposure or film: is a mass audiovisual medium that allows you to reach a large group of people "captive" as with low selectivity. Its advantages are: captive audience and greater sharpness color ads. Its disadvantages include: little selective in terms of sex, age and socioeconomic status, and is quite expensive.
vi. Ancillary or complementary means: this media group includes the following types of media: Outdoor or outdoor advertising media: is a medium, usually visual that is outdoors or in the open air. According to Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, it represents a flexible, low-cost, able to assume a variety of forms. Examples include: spectacular, writing in the sky, giant balloons, minicarteles in shopping malls and stops for buses and airports, and ads on the sides of the cars, trucks and buses, and even in huge reservoirs or water tanks. Its advantages are: high flexibility; repeated exposure; low cost; low message competition; good selectivity by location. Its disadvantages include: non-selective in terms of age, sex and socioeconomic status, it has profound effects on readers, is criticized by disruptions to traffic and ruining the natural landscape. Interior advertising: Consists of Visual Media (and in some cases they include audio) placed in closed spaces where people spend or pause. According to Laura Fischer and Jorge Espejo, this advertising is placed on: sports stadiums; squares of bulls; inside the truck; trolleybuses and trams in urban; the bottom of cinema screens (bright canopies) and inside the underground, either inside the wagons or platforms.
Its advantages are: low cost, captive audience,
geographical selectivity. Their disadvantages are: does not give security of
quick results, fails to professionals or entrepreneurs, they are very numerous
and they tend to resemble so much that they confuse. Direct advertising or
direct mail: This means auxiliary or supplementary consists, in general, send a
print ad to potential or current customer. According to Laura Fischer and Jorge
Espejo, direct mail uses many forms (e.g., postcards, letters, catalogues,
brochures, calendars, bulletins, circulars, annexes in envelopes and packages,
samples, and so on). The most common is the brochure or flyer. Its advantages
are: high audience selectivity; There is no advertising competition within the
same medium; It allows to customize. Its limitations are: relatively high cost
per exposure; image of "junk mail".
Alternative means: They are those media that are not in the previous classifications and can be very innovative. According to Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, in this group the following media types are:
1.
Faxes.
2.
Shopping
trolleys with video in commercial stores.
3.
Protective
screens of computers.
4.
Compact
discs.
5.
Interactive
kiosks in department stores.
6.
Ads
that pass before movies in theaters and in the rented videocassettes.
In addition, according to the above authors, almost
anything can become a vehicle for display advertising. For example, elevators
(lifts) included or already included screens to display news, information and
advertising to attract the attention of workers from higher-income in large
office buildings.
viii. Characteristic
of Media
If mediators describe the
physical agencies which make communication possible, characteristics describe
the essential qualities of a medium. These qualities exist, to some extent,
independently of either the mediators that constitute the medium, the effects
the medium has, or the way people use it. It is reasonable to view
characteristics as a high level description of what a medium's possibilities.
They state what can happen when people take advantage of a medium's potential.
Viewed from this perspective, the potential inherent in characteristics sees
realization in a medium's actual effects (a third, still to be examined, view
of media).
Restating this view slightly,
characteristics express abstract qualities that are inherent to various
combinations of physical agencies (mediators). Mediators are concrete and
observable. Characteristics are also observable, but are an abstraction related
to the way mediators are used. Using biology as a metaphor in which we can
express this vocabulary, a discussion of "biological mediators" might
say that a bird has wings and a fish has fins. A similar discussion of
"biological characteristics" might say that a bird is capable of
flying and a fish is capable of swimming. In this view, the difference is one
of structure versus behavior. Characteristics are, then, a view of the
essential behavior of media. In a third perspective of characteristics, they
describe the essential relationship of a medium's mediators (as agency) to
agents (the people that use media) and acts (the messages we transmit via
media). In this view we see a medium's mediators as having specific essential
impacts on the messages and communicators that a medium mediates:
1. A
capacitive filter, for instance, will slow the message flow and deliver
messages in bundles. The slowed message flow can be regarded as an expression
of a characteristic of media. The bundled message flow can be regarded as an
expression of a characteristic of media. Both characteristics describe the
relationship of a medium to its messages.
2. Simultaneous
and parallel interfaces between communicators, in another instance, entail both
interface symmetry (both communicators have the same interface) and a
requirement for synchrony (both communicators must use the medium at the same
time). Both synchrony and interface symmetry can be regarded as characteristics
of media. Both characteristics describe the relationship of a medium to its
users.
Each of these perspectives,
characteristics as potential, characteristics as behavior, and characteristics
as relationship, contributes to the description of what constitutes a medium's
characteristics. Each perspective is correct. None is entirely complete. One
shows how characteristics (as potential) work to create effects (as
realization). One shows how mediators (as structure) work to create
characteristics (as behavior). The third shows how characteristics express the
relationship between mediators and the people and messages which they mediate.
Social media is a computer-based
technology that facilitates the sharing of ideas and information and the
building of virtual networks and communities. By design, social media is
internet based and offers users easy electronic communication of personal
information and other content, such as videos and photos. Users engage with
social media via computer, tablet or smartphone via web-based software or web
application, often utilizing it for messaging. Social media originated as a
tool that people used to interact with friends and family but was later adopted
by businesses that wanted to take advantage of a popular new communication
method to reach out to customers. The power of social media is the ability to
connect and share information with anyone on Earth (or multitudes of people) as
long as they also use social media.
2.2.2 Types of Social Media Platforms
Social media is everywhere these days: we see companies
employing social media advertising on commercials, radio, billboards, websites,
and even on our cell phones and other mobile devices. We see logos for
Facebook, Twitter, and Flickr at the bottom of hundreds of websites. We
are asked to subscribe to blogs, become fans, friends, share, and connect in
countless ways, but how is this social networking actually benefiting us, and
are the companies using these platforms seeing measurable results? Since the
list of social media platforms and the variety of advantages and disadvantages
to using them can be overwhelming, we've decided to take a few that we believe
to be most advantageous and describe some of their pros and cons from a business
point of view. It is critical to remember that not every industry should
be spending their time and money on some of these platforms, and it is best to
analyze just what your desired outcomes are before beginning a social media
campaign. From there, weighing the costs and possible profits of each
platform should help narrow down which type of social media program to begin.
i. Blogs
- We begin here, as blogs are widely considered the "base" of any
social media campaign. Blogs can add personality to your website and
boost industry perception, educate others through the demonstration of your
knowledge of the market, create an emotional investment in your company, build
brand awareness, and more. Additionally, blogs can be integrated with
other types of social media platforms, and can even have your Facebook posts or
Twitter streams live on the blog itself. One of the downsides to blogs is that
they need to be as real to their readers as you should be to your
customers. Readers will know if you are faking your industry knowledge,
if you have too much emphasis on yourself and not on them, and also whether or
not you are involved with the blog regularly. Along those lines, blogs
should be updated frequently, which can be difficult from a time
perspective. This factor must be taken into consideration before deciding
to create a company blog.
ii. Facebook
– One of the most currently relevant and widespread platforms for social
networking is Facebook. Although trends come and go, Facebook should be
the second social media device used after blogging for the very reason that it
takes brand awareness to the next level by making your company logo very
visible and allowing people to easily share news about your business to all
their “friends”. People who become your fans are frequently
reminded of your presence by status updates, news, and other
interactions. Additionally, Facebook provides an analytics tool whereby
companies can view weekly reports detailing new fans, numbers of interactions,
and types of actions taken on their pages. Furthermore, Facebook allows
for the creation of customized tabs on which to link other platforms, such as
Twitter or a blog, to a Facebook profile. The downside to Facebook is, like
blogging, the time needed to maintain the company page, although the time
needed here is considerably less than on platforms like Twitter.
iii. Twitter – As mentioned above, much
time and energy is required to successfully manage a Twitter account.
With 27.3 million tweets per day, keeping track of who is talking about your
company, your product, or who might need to know about you can be overwhelming
to say the least. Additionally, one must keep in mind various factors
such as the need to “retweet” or reply quickly, maintain an appropriate
“follower to following” ratio to ensure better optimization, and a host of
other variables.
On the upside, Twitter allows
users to use programs such as Tweet Deck
to monitor tweets or schedule tweets for distribution. Twitter can be an
extremely innovative and relevant way to reach customers, but this tool will
only work for certain industries, in certain instances, and must be maintained
regularly with a good strategy in place in order to be successful.
iv. YouTube
– Yes, YouTube is considered a social media platform. What’s more, it is
also the 2nd most-used search engine following Google. Yes, we did say
“search engine”. For the record, YouTube is used in this fashion
primarily by the younger generation, and not as frequently as those who might
actually have the resources to become a customer. However, with a trend
this large, companies should not be quick to overlook a branding and
informational tool such as YouTube, especially considering the average time on
site is 23 minutes. The benefits of maintaining a YouTube presence include a
potentially huge audience for companies on a tight budget, and the ability to
“tag” keywords to videos so that you will have a good chance of being seen when
your terms are searched. Of course, as with the other platforms we have
discussed, various factors play a role here, but if your company has already
produced video creative to be used on your website or blog, it is easy to
create a YouTube Channel and cast a much wider net, especially considering
YouTube’s time constraints are also much lighter on company resources than with
the other platforms. As with all social media platforms, what is hot today
might not be in the future. Companies need to be able to accurately
determine what to allocate their time and resources in to increase brand
awareness and maintain a positive reputation on- and offline. This
conservative and well-thought-out approach will help prepare these companies
for the next phase of social media, or whatever type of media becomes the “next
big thing”. Search engine
marketing companies and their clients must consider these factors
when making decisions about how and when to further marketing efforts.
v. Characteristic of social media
The pace of change in social
media and its uses means that its definition can be a moving target. Generally,
however, all social media shares the following characteristics:
b)
Features user-generated
profiles.
c)
Content is generated by
users. This includes photos, videos, conversations, comments, etc.
d)
Connections between users
are facilitated by the platform.
2.2.3
Academic performance
Performance is defined as the
observable or measurable behavior of a person an animal in a particular
situation usually experimental situation (Simpson and Weiner. 2000). This means
that performance measures the aspect of behavior that can be observed at a
specific period. To determine performance, a performance test is conducted.
Singer (1981) defined performance test as the type of mental test in which the
subject is asked to do something rather than to say something. Performance test is the type of test which
throws light on the ability to deal with things rather than symbols (Drever,
1981). In relation to educational research, academic performance of a student
can be regarded as the observable and measurable behavior of a student in a
particular situation. For example, the academic performance of a student in
social studies includes observable and measurable behavior of a student at any
point in time during a course. In social studies students' academic performance
consists of his scores at any particular time obtained from a teacher- made
test. Therefore, we can equate academic performance with the observed behavior
or expectation of achieving a specific statement of or statement of educational
intention in a research. Academic performance of students consists of scores
obtained from teacher-made test, first term examination, and mid-semester test.
And so on.
Achievement is defined as measurable
behavior in a standardized series of tests (Simpson and Weiner. 1989).
Achievement test is usually constructed and standardized to measure proficiency
in school subjects. In most cases, according to them. "Accomplishment"
is sometimes used in place of "achievement". According to Bruce and
Neville (1979) educational achievement is measured by standardized achievement
test developed for school subjects. What this means is that academic
achievement is measured in relation to what is attained at the end of a course,
since it is the accomplishment of medium or long term objective of education.
What is important is that the test should be a standardized test to meet
national norm. For a test to be standardized, it must be valid for over a
period of time Achievement is regarded as action of completing or attaining by
exertion. It subsumes anything won by exertion, a feat, a distinguished and
successful action. Simpson and Weiner (1989) contended that achievement test
intends to measure systematic education and training in school occupation
towards a conventionally accepted pattern of skills or knowledge. Several
subjects may be combined into an achievement battery for measuring general
school proficiency either in point score or achievement age and perhaps
achievement quotient.
Studies have shown that outcome is a generic word
which can be used for both performance and attitude or achievement and
attitude. In other words, outcome measures the general statement which provides
for both academic performance/achievement and attitude Learning outcome also
provides for measurement of specific actions designed to achieve some future behavior.
2.2.4
Factors influencing academic
performance
The reading habits
of students have been washed down the drain as a result of the emergence of
technology and advent of social media. Reading is the essential factor that
forms the foundation of greatness in everyone’s life irrespective of gender,
status, and age. It helps to develop an individual and is also important when
trying to pass an examination (read tips to pass an examination here).
One of the major reason for the dwindling rate at which students read is due to
the introduction of phones, computers, laptops and the wrong usage of all forms
of communication technology. Social media and its networks such as BBM,
WHATSAPP, Instagram, 2go, Facebook, Twitter, Badoo, YouTube and the use of the
Internet as a whole has been the major obsessions of most Nigerian youths.
Despite the fact that the social media is making student’s academics suffer, it
also has some positive contributions to education. In this article, we will be
discussing the effects of social media has on public senior secondary school
education. Negative Effects (Disadvantages) of
Social Media Many students that have access to the GSM
waste their time on it by chatting and surfing the Internet for non-educative
information. They are glued to their phones all day making them lose the sense
of time. Some students are also seen pressing their phones during classes,
seminars and also in the libraries. They believe their smartphones are catalysts
for easy assimilation when reading. Some even plugged in their earpieces and
are seen humming out the songs they are listening to when studying which reduce
their rates of assimilation and act as a source of disturbances to others
around them. Youths of nowadays search
for information that will not add values to their lives. In a bid to
know what is going on in the world and to be current with events, they are
always seen on the Internet reading, browsing and reading fashion and social
blogs. There is a great decline in student’s passion to read for pleasure and
enjoyment but instead prefer to seek pleasure from the media by streaming
videos on Social Medias and playing with their phones. The main reason why they
now read is just to pass an examination and not to gain knowledge. This has
reduced the vast use and development of the brain. Students are no more
learning through reading. Students who so much devote their times on networking
(read about networking here)
have a great tendency of having low grades, poor academic performance and
become unsuccessful.
Furthermore, the social media has disrupted the writing
skills. Students no longer know how to write long essays because
they no more read novels and storybooks that may educate them on writing. The
Internet is full of short stories and write-ups with lots of abbreviation and
students reading all these will not have the real skill needed for writing.
Also, due to nature by which messages and chats are written, students have
inculcated the habit of writing in shorthand, constructing incomplete sentences
and few lines, and this has affected their grammar, punctuation, communication (read an interesting article about communicating with your partner here)
and writing skills. These acts affect many of them in classes and during exams
and tests. Abbreviations and incomplete sentences are being written which may
not make sense to the examiner and thus lead to failure. Examples of such are
‘k’ instead of ‘okay’, ‘cs/cz/bcos’ instead of ‘because’ and so on. Some
students even forget how to spell correctly due to their constant use of
shorthand when chatting.
Also, students no longer pay attention to
details and research since they know they can always check up anything they
need online. By doing this, the usage of libraries and research institutes have
reduced. The retentive memory is no more put into use. Students are now lazy in
keeping information like dates, notes, and key points ‘upstairs’. They know the
information needed can be browsed up. If they are asked any question or
important events and dates, they will not think twice before bringing their
phones out to search for it instead of providing answers off hand. Students are exposed to vices (read an
interesting article on social vices here) and dirty sites like the pornography
sites, in the course of browsing. Since children like practicing what they see,
they tend to practice all that they saw and read on the net. They engage in all
these things at the detriment of their education. These are just a few out of
the numerous negative impacts and disadvantages of social media on education.
i. Positive Effects (Advantages) of Social Media on Academic Performance
The social
media also have numerous positive effects. Firstly, it enhances learning and education. Students, with the
help of the Internet, now have access to all form of information. Nothing is
strange to ‘google’. No matter how old the information is, the Internet serves
as searchlights to them. Some information that cannot be found in the libraries
and research centers are now available online. The use of search engines such
as Google and Google Scholar has helped many students in their educational
life. The world is now a small place where there is circulation of knowledge
and information. Educational problems encountered by students are being
discussed and solved online through the help of online counselors.
Secondly, schools now teach over the
Internet. Distance learning is made possible by the use of social
media. Many universities are now offering online courses to the public. The
social media has brought education and learning to our doorsteps. No need of
traveling and risking lives just to study. Options of studying abroad when in
Nigeria are open to students who are not financially buoyant to travel out of
the country. Lecturers now prefer assignments and projects to be submitted to
their emails. Lecture notes, handouts and reading materials are made available
by the teachers online and downloaded by the students. This reduces the cost of
making photocopies and the risk of misplacing them thereby making education
easier. The media also makes students meet
people from various parts of the world which expose them to lots of
ideas that might be useful to them. Students also have access to educational
groups on Facebook and other online Social Media where intellectual people
discuss education, social problems, and contemporary issues. Students are
versatile in knowledge by the help of the social media. Media houses such as
the radio and television stations also help in the dissemination of social
issues. It has also helped the
students to have access to their mentors and role models that are far away.
They are able to communicate with these people through the aid of the social
networks. Also, they have the opportunities of contracting industries and
companies of interest. Jobs are being sought and applied for online. Furthermore, students with the time
spent on computers and mobile devices are exposed to technology, may develop an interest in it and pick it up
as a career (read about choosing the right career
here). Their
social lives help in socializing and building up confidence in the future. The
use of computer helps students to develop themselves in Web designs, artistic
skills, and other computer-related programs. This increases their creativity
and technology know-how.
ii.
Assessment
of academic performance
Teachers most often use assessment
to obtain information that helps them improve their instruction. This in turn
helps them to bridge the gap between curriculum standards and student
achievement. Assessment is also used for accountability purposes, for both
students and teachers. Classrooms are made up of a diversity of learners and so
to help them make appropriate instructional decisions and to provide valid
information for accountability, teachers use a wide variety of assessments.
This is evident in all the literature reviewed by the writer as well as
interviews of teachers performed by the author. Assessment information can be
used in three different ways: to give the teacher and student information that
will allow them to improve student learning, to help with selection decisions
for educational options, and to provide accountability at a number of levels.
Although it seems when reading a newspaper or watching the television news that
the main role of assessment is to judge how well a school is performing as a
part of educational reform, the more important use for assessment is to help
the teacher improve student learning (Diez 1997).
Feedback about student’s achievement
can help the teacher reflect on instructional methods used and help plan the
next educational steps to take. In fact, without the information gained from
valid and reliable assessments, an instructional program cannot be responsive
to the needs of the students. Assessment information allows the teacher to find
out whether their instruction is helping students meet criteria of mastery or
make acceptable progress along academic continuums. Veteran first grade teacher
Debbi Beckhorn states "... (I have) seen many changes in the arena of
assessment and monitoring of student progress. More and more, it seems, we need
to 'check in' with students more frequently in order to carefully lead them in
their next step in the learning process. I use a variety of assessment tools to
'dip in' to a student's progress..."(Beckhorn, 2000) for this first grade teacher,
the use of assessment information helps her make instructional decisions,
allowing her to guide her students' progress along academic continuums. This
use of assessment as information can be seen at all levels of the K-12 system.
Joanne Schmitt, a high school mathematics teacher uses formal assessments in
this way on a weekly basis. "At least once a week, I give a short quiz to
get a more formal assessment of (students') progress. From the results ... I
judge whether or not I need to reteach and/or give more practice on
concepts." (Schmitt, 2000)
While developing this paper, the
author discovered that including students in the instructional decision process
through the use of assessment information changes with the age of the students.
The first grade teacher quoted above made all the instructional decisions that
were based on the assessment information. The high school mathematics teacher
on the other hand provided frequent performance feedback directly to her
students so that they could modify their personal approach to learning the
material. This shows a sort of cooperative attitude between the students and
the teacher when negotiating curriculum. One of the most important aspects of
my assessment is that I give the students weekly feedback on their grades, so
that they have the opportunity to see exactly where they are weak and can
improve. Most of my students feel this is very important and will "get on
my case" if I slack off on my record keeping. I also require that they
keep a written, running account of what they have turned in, because I freely
admit that I am human and can (and do) make mistakes when entering records into
the computer. This gives them a feeling of empowerment and helps to make them
understand that in the long run, they are responsible for the grades they earn
(Schmitt, 2000).
The last portion of the statement
also shows that teachers use assessment for more than just getting sound
information in order to make instructional decisions. Teachers also use
assessment for accountability reasons, to help students be accountable for
their learning. Apart from guiding instructional decisions, a newer role that
is forming for assessment is that of determining instruction. State high-stakes
test results are doing this because teachers feel "...administrative
pressure to teach to the test..." (Bol, Stephenson, & Nunnery, 1998)
Whether this improves student achievement has yet to be established. Assessments
can be placed in two categories, alternative assessments and traditional
assessments. Alternative assessments include observations, performance
assessments, student self-assessments, and portfolios. Traditional assessments
include both standardized and classroom achievement tests with predominately
selection type questions (Bol, Stephenson, & Nunnery, 1998). Classrooms are
diverse collections of children and learning is a complex process. In order to
provide valid and usable information, assessment needs to be given in a variety
of ways, using both traditional and alternative methods. A fourth grade
teacher, Fred Akins, is representative of this. The assessments he uses for
both instructional decision making and accountability include both
paper-and-pencil tests and performance assessments. The assessment tools he
uses include observations, rubrics, text-book unit assessments, analytical
reading inventories, timed tests, reading interviews, and the Washington
Assessment of Student Learning standardized test (Akins, 2000). Both the first
grade and the high school teacher interviewed by the author also included a
wide variety of assessment tools that include traditional and alternative
assessments. This is also reflective of what Mertler (1999), Bol, Stephenson,
and Nunnery (1998). The frequency with which teachers used traditional methods
of assessments was not associated with the frequency with which they used
alternative assessments. The absence of a negative correlation between the
variables implies that teachers tend to use both methods of assessment in their
classrooms, rather than using traditional or alternative methods as their
dominant means of student’s assessment (Bol, Stephenson, & Nunnery, 1998).
This makes sense because, as has
been written, "Given the diversity of achievement
targets it becomes obvious that no single assessment method is capable of reflecting them all." (Stiggins, 1995) In other words, students achievements such as the memorization of multiplication facts are best measured by assessment methods such as a traditional paper-and-pencil achievement test, it doesn't make sense to create a portfolio based entirely on math facts mastered (although it could be done). With other modes of learning, alternative assessment methods provide better information. For instance a writing product can be assessed through the use of a scoring rubric, likely providing more valid information for both instructional and accountability purposes than a multiple choice test would. In fact, "...performance-based assessment provides teachers with information about how the student understands and applies knowledge" and this cannot be done as well with most traditional forms of testing (Brualdi, 1999).
targets it becomes obvious that no single assessment method is capable of reflecting them all." (Stiggins, 1995) In other words, students achievements such as the memorization of multiplication facts are best measured by assessment methods such as a traditional paper-and-pencil achievement test, it doesn't make sense to create a portfolio based entirely on math facts mastered (although it could be done). With other modes of learning, alternative assessment methods provide better information. For instance a writing product can be assessed through the use of a scoring rubric, likely providing more valid information for both instructional and accountability purposes than a multiple choice test would. In fact, "...performance-based assessment provides teachers with information about how the student understands and applies knowledge" and this cannot be done as well with most traditional forms of testing (Brualdi, 1999).
Students attend school to learn and
teachers' main purpose is to guide them in this endeavor. Because of this,
although there are other legitimate reasons for assessment, obtaining
information about student’s achievements in order to guide instruction is the
most important one. When used in this way, instruction improves and more
closely meets the needs of the individual child, students learning is enhanced,
and teachers will be better able to bridge that gap between student achievement
and curriculum standards. The learning process is complex and educational
targets are diverse, so that a wide variety of assessment tools are needed to
get the appropriate information. If we truly believe that all children have a
right and an ability to learn, then we need to keep the most important use of
assessment in its place. Information to better meet the learning needs of our
children must be the top priority of assessment (Airasian
1997).
2.3 Theoretical framework
Canadian
psychologist Albert Bandura proposed one of the most influential theories of
learning and development the ‘social learning theory’ (Bandura, 2007, p.69).
Bandura stated that “most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action” (Bandura, 1977). The incorporated social aspect of this theory is known
as “observational learning (or modeling)” as people have the ability to learn
by simply watching others (Social Learning Theory: Understanding Bandura's
Theory of Learning, n.d.). Found within the social learning theory lies three
main concepts. First, as previously mentioned is the notion that individuals
have the ability to learn through observation, second- that mental states are a
fundamental part of this process and thirdly, the theory alleges that when
something is learned this does not always follow by a change in behavior. As
external, environmental reinforcement was not the only influence to learning
and behavior, intrinsic reinforcement was also considered to play a part in
forming the learned response of an individual. As it is perceived as a form of
“internal reward”, such examples include “pride, satisfaction and a sense of
accomplishment” (Social Learning Theory: Understanding Bandura's Theory of
Learning, n.d.). It is evident that internal thoughts and cognitions assist to
connect learning theories with cognitive developmental theories. Bandura
suggested that his concept surrounding the social learning theory could be
considered as a “social cognitive theory” (Social Learning Theory:
Understanding Bandura's Theory of Learning, n.d.). Observational learning
considers that individuals are able to learn without demonstrating new
behaviors. Yet it is suggested that not all observed behaviors are learned
adequately. Specific factors influence the success of learning and it is the
following steps that determine the observational learning and modeling process:
a. Attention: For
behaviors to be successfully learned, the individual must pay sufficient
attention.
b. Retention: Storing
this information so that it may be used at a later date is crucial to the
observational learning process.
c. Reproduction: Following
attention and retention comes the time to reproduce the observed behavior.
Practice of this behavior assists with the improvement of skills.
d.
Motivation: The
individual must be motivated to repeat the learned behavior. Reinforcement and
punishment influence assist to influence this step as it acts to either
encourage or deter the individual from having the motivation to repeat the
modeled behavior. Kaplan’s experiment (1972) shows a similar association to
Bandura as the experiment focuses on “the effects of vicarious reinforcement
and model’s behavior on subjects’ imitation of the model’s performance and
learning to give critical responses”.
Social learning theory combines cognitive learning theory (which posits that
learning is influenced by psychological factors) and behavioral learning theory
(which assumes that learning is based on responses to environmental stimuli).
Psychologist Albert Bandura integrated these two theories and came up with four
requirements for learning: observation (environmental), retention (cognitive),
reproduction (cognitive), and motivation (both). This integrative approach to
learning was called social learning theory. Bandura developed what
famously became known as the Bobo Doll experiments. In these studies,
children watched adults model either violent or passive behavior towards a
toy called Bobo Doll, and what they saw influenced how they subsequently
interacted with the dolls. Children who observed violent behavior imitated this
behavior and were verbally and physically aggressive toward the doll.
Children who witnessed nonviolent behavior behaved less aggressively toward the
doll. Bandura concluded that children learn aggression, violence, and
other social behaviors through observation learning, or watching the behaviors
of others.
2.3.1
Social
Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura (1977):
Lou (2013) opined that Bandura proposed the concept of
social cognitive theory. A general contention is that much of the development
in human cognition is explained by the interplay of internal personal factors
in the form of cognitive, affective and biological events; behavior; and
environmental events.
According to Nabavi (2014), Bandura in 1961 conducted
his famous experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, to study patterns of behavior,
by social learning theory, and that similar behaviors were learned by
individuals shaping their own behavior after the actions of models.
Bandura's results from the Bobo Doll Experiment
changed the course of modern psychology, and were widely credited for helping
shift the focus in academic psychology from pure behaviorism to cognitive.
He demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors
which they have observed in other people.
According to Banyard & Grayson (2000), Bandura
believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning,
and that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other
people. According to Shaffer (2005), people learn from one another, via:
Observation; Imitation; and Modeling.
In social learning theory,
Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:
a) Mediating
processes occur between stimuli & responses.
b) Behaviour
is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
2.3.2 Observational Learning
Children observe the people
around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). Individuals that
are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s
TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models
provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and
feminine, pro and anti-social, etc. Children pay attention to some of these
people (models) and encode their behavior. At a
later time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or
not, but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child
will reproduce the behavior that its society deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely
to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.
Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the
same gender. Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior
it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates
a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to
continue performing the behavior. If a parent sees a little girl
consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding
for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior.
Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened). Reinforcement can be
external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants
approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but
feeling happy about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A
child will behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because it
desires approval. Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact
if the reinforcement offered externally does not match with an individual's
needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important
factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior. Third,
the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when
deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions.
A person learns
by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior,
e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a
particular behavior is more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This
is known as vicarious reinforcement. This relates to an attachment to specific
models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of
models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world,
such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in
the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have
a quality which the individual would like to possess. Identification occurs
with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed
behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are
identifying.
The term identification as used
by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the
Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting
another person’s behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex, the child
can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with Social Learning Theory
the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other person.
Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of
behaviors being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single
behavior.
2.3.3 Mediational Processes
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning
theory (i.e., behaviorism) and the cognitive
approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are
involved in learning. Unlike Skinner,
Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about the
relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Observational
learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental
factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether
a new response is acquired. Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe
the behavior of a model and imitate it. There is some thought prior to
imitation, and this consideration is called mediational processes. This occurs
between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response)
There are four mediational
processes proposed by Bandura: (Bandura 1977)
a)
Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the
behavior. For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We
observe many behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy.
Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences
others imitating it.
b)
Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The
behavior may be noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously
prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behavior is
formed to be performed later by the observer.
c)
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this
process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced
shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
d) Reproduction:
This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be
able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our
physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the
behavior, we cannot.
e)
This influences our decisions whether to try and
imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to
walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable
one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do
it.
f)
Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards
and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If
the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the
behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious
reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they
will not imitate the behavior.
2.3.4 Critical Evaluation
The social learning approach
takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that they play
in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated or not. As such, SLT provides a
more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognizing the role of
mediational processes. However, although it can explain some quite complex
behavior, it cannot adequately account for how we develop a whole range of
behavior including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of cognitive control
over our behavior and just because we have had experiences of violence does not
mean we have to reproduce such behavior.
It is for this reason that Bandura modified his theory and in 1986
renamed his Social Learning Theory, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), as a better
description of how we learn from our social experiences. Some criticisms of
social learning theory arise from their commitment to the environment as the
chief influence on behavior. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in
terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the
complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that behavior is due to an
interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment).
Social learning theory is not a
full explanation for all behavior. This is particularly the case when there is
no apparent role model in the person’s life to imitate for a given behavior.
The discovery of mirror neurons has lent biological support to the theory of
social learning. Although research is in its infancy the recent discovery of
"mirror neurons" in primates may constitute a neurological basis for
imitation. These are neurons which fire both if the animal does something
itself, and if it observes the action being done by another.
2.4. Theory of Performance
The Theory of Performance (ToP) develops and relates
six foundational concepts (italicized) to form a framework that can be used to
explain performance as well as performance improvements. To perform is to
produce valued results. A performer can be an individual or a group of people
engaging in a collaborative effort. Developing performance is a journey, and
level of performance describes location in the journey. Current level of
performance depends holistically on 6 components: context, level of knowledge,
levels of skills, level of identity, personal factors, and fixed factors. Three
axioms are proposed for effective performance improvements. These involve a
performer’s mindset, immersion in an enriching environment, and engagement in
reflective practice. By Don Elger, University of Idaho Rationale for a Humans
are capable of extraordinary accomplishments. Gandhi led a nonviolent
revolution that liberated India from colonial rule. On September 12th,
1962, JFK challenged the country to “go to the moon in this decade and do the
other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because
that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and
skills...” Wonderful accomplishments also occur in day-to-day practice in
higher education. An advisor inspires students to follow their dreams. A
teacher magically connects with students. A researcher continually asks the
quintessential questions that lead to revolutions in thinking. A dean inspires
an entire college to collaborate and attain wonderful outcomes.
Since worthy accomplishments are produced from
high-level performances, a theory of performance (ToP) is useful in many
learning contexts. Traditional Contexts a ToP informs learning in classrooms,
workshops, and other venues that are traditionally associated with learning. Non-traditional
Contexts a ToP informs learning in contexts that are not traditionally
conceptualized as learning environments. Examples of these contexts include
academic advising, self-development, departments, academic committees,
professional research groups, colleges. Organizational Learning a ToP informs
learning by organizations through the idea of examining the “level of
performance” of the organization. Don Elger (1962).
i.
Performance
To perform is to take a complex series of actions that
integrate skills and knowledge to produce a valuable result. Examples of
performance are shown in Table 1. In some instances, the performer is an
individual. In other performances, the performer is a collection of people who
are collaborating such as an academic department, research team, committee,
student team, or a university.
ii. Level of Performance
Performance, as the adage goes, is a “journey not a
destination.” The location in the journey is labeled as “level of performance.”
Each level characterizes the effectiveness or quality of a performance.
As a lawyer improves her level of performance, she can
conduct legal research faster, more thoroughly, and more in-depth.
As an academic department improves its level of
performance, the members of the department are able to produce more effective
student learning, more effective research, and a more effective culture.
As a manager advances his level of performances, he is
able to organize people and resources more effectively and to get higher
quality results in a shorter time.
As a teacher advances his levels of performance, he is
able to produce deeper levels of learning, improved levels of skill
development, and more connection with the discipline for larger classes while
spending less time doing this.
As an actor improves his level of performance, he is
able to learn parts quicker, play more varied roles, and produce a deeper and
more meaningful impact on audiences.
Performance advancing through levels is show where the
labels “Level 1,” “Level 2,” etc. are used to characterize effectiveness of
performance. That is, a person or organization at Level 3 is performing better
than a person or organization at Level 2. As shown on the right side,
performing at a higher level produces results that can be classified into
categories:
Quality increases results or products are more
effective in meeting or exceeding the expectations of stakeholders.
Performance Area Primary
Domain Examples
Designing Cognitive a. Re-designing automobiles for fuel efficiently
b. Writing
an original song or composition for an orchestra
a. Creating
an integrated and aligned curriculum
Problem Solving Cognitive b. Recognizing key issues that are negatively
impacting a
university and taking actions that reduce these issues to a level of
insignificance
c. Figuring
out why a particular stretch of highway has a high fatality rate and taking
actions that reduce the fatality rate by 70%
Selling Social a. selling a computer
system to a company
b. Convincing
a college dean to invest in faculty development
Presenting Social a. presenting closing
arguments to a jury
presenting a
research paper at a technical conference
Life Management Affective a. Comforting a friend
whose wife has died in a
traffic
accident
b. Helping a
colleague who has been denied tenure or promotion understand that the
evaluation was fair
c. Confronting
unprofessional behavior from a colleague or a supervisor
Playing a sport or a
musical instrument Psychomotor a. Playing in a golf tournament
b. Playing clarinet in an orchestra
Cost decreases amount of effort or financial resources
to produce a result goes down; amount of waste goes down.
Capability increases ability to tackle more
challenging performances or projects increases
Capacity increases ability to generate more throughput
increases
Knowledge increases depth and breadth of knowledge
increases
Skills increase abilities to set goals, persist, and
maintain a positive outlook, etc. increase in breadth of application and in
effectiveness.
Identity and motivation increases individuals develop
more sense of who they are as professionals; organizations develop their
essence.
iii. Components of Performance
The performance of a system, for example a home
entertainment system, depends on the components of the system and on the
interactions between these components. Similarly, level of performance of an
individual or an organization depends on the components described in each
component is described using rules and exemplars. An exemplar is a lucid
example of a component. The rules in column four are guidelines to define the
component.
iv. Improving Performance
While some factors that influence improving performance
are immutable, other factors can be influenced by the performer or by others.
The factors that can be varied fall into three categories. Performer’s Mindset.
Performer’s mindset includes actions that engage positive emotions. Examples
include setting challenging goals, allowing failure as a natural part of
attaining high performance, and providing conditions in which the performer
feels a right amount of safety. The Accelerator Model module provides insights
on maintaining a performer’s mindset.
v. Immersion.
Immersion in a physical, social, and intellectual
environment can elevate performance and stimulate personal as well as
professional development.
Elements include social interactions, disciplinary
knowledge, active learning, emotions (both positive and negative), and
spiritual alignment. The section on Creating Quality Learning Environments
outlines strategies for fostering immersion.
vi. Reflective Practice.
Reflective practice involves actions that help people
pay attention to and learn from experiences. Examples include observing the
present level of performance, noting accomplishments, analyzing strengths and
areas for improvements, analyzing and develop identity, and improving levels of
knowledge. The section on Assessment offers a variety of strategies for
cultivating reflective practice. Conditions for optimal performance and
improvements in performance can be synthesize in three axioms:
Axiom 1.engage the performer in an optimal emotional
state (performer’s mindset).
Axiom 2. Immerse the performer in an enriching
environment.
Axiom 3. Engage the performer in reflective practice.
The Top presented here is similar to other constructs
in the literature. The Parallel Curriculum, advocated by Thomlinson et al.
(2002), advocates four parallel curriculums that reinforce the four adjustable
components in Table 2. The core curriculum and the curriculum of connections
focuses on knowledge construction. The curriculum of practices emphasizes
context and promotes skill development. The curriculum of identity focuses on
development of the individual as a member of a professional community. Support
for the three axioms can also be found in writings by Caine et al. relaxed
alertness aligns with the performer’s mindset. Orchestrated involvement in complex
challenges and supportive experiences aligns with immersion. Active processing
of experiences aligns with reflective practice Additional support for the
axioms can be found in the work of Branford et. al’s (2000). Their model for
effective teaching/learning includes knowledge-centered, learner-centered,
assessment-centered, and community-centered components. The learner-centered
component involves the performer’s mindset. The knowledge-centered and community-centered
components connote immersion in an enriching environment, while the
assessment-centered component embraces elements of reflective practice. The
importance of having a well-founded conceptual model, appropriate methods for
data collection, and reliable and robust system for making inferences about
observations is well-established in the work or Pellegrino and Glaser (2001),
and this under girds reflective practice in organizational contexts.
2.5 Empirical Review
2.5.1 Social Media and Students Academic Performance
Different
researchers have conducted research to ascertain the influence of social media
several media on users, for example, Moon (2011) in a study on “effect of
social media on students’ academic performance”, averred that social media have
negative effect on students. According to the result, the more students use
Facebook, the more it affects their academic performance. Similarly, Oyez
(2012) notes that most of the younger students use social networking sites
manly for socializing activities, rather than for academic purpose. Oye (2012)
_ further observed that most of the students do feel that social networking
sites have more positive effect on their academic performance. In another study
conducted by Shana (2012), it was revealed that students use social network
mainly for making friends and chatting. The result showed that only 26 percent
of the students (respondents) indicated that they social media for academic
purpose. Young (2006) in a study titled “the effect of internet use and social
capital on the academic performance of students” observed that the internet
expands its reach to teenagers’ school life. Young noted that students are note
reliant on the internet to access information that is involved in school life
as well as entertainment. The researcher further added that internet, though
consumes time, and has less effect on studies, notes the effect of social media
depends large on the degree of usage. (Yang, 2003)
Yoon (2000) observed that the type
of social media or network subscribed by a teenager exerts influence on him or
her to visit the internet. Jeong (2005) noted that internet addiction is
significantly and negatively related to students’ academic performance, as well
as emotional attributes. Seo (2004) corroborates Jong’s assertion when he
opined that the negative influence of internet is only on excessive users and
not all users. Rather (2013, p. 69). The social networking sites and blogs
which are being used today with tremendous passion and zeal have transformed
the way of using internet in recent years by describing online tools and
utilities which allow users for communication, participation and
collaboration of information online.
Today’s young generation, especially teens and youth are using technology
through innovative ways due to which they are referred to as millennials and
changed the ways we think, work and communicate even though they are in
formative years of their life. Today’s youth because of these social networking
sites have become technology addicts and are quite introverted (Carls, 2011).
A
new research study finds that widespread use of media among freshman college
students may compromise academic performance. The study is one of the first to
explore mechanisms of media effects on academic outcomes, investigators determined
that use of media, from texting to chatting on cell phones to posting stats
updates on Facebook may lower grades for freshman female students (Nauert,
2007). A Study on
the Negative Effects of Social Networking Sites Such as Facebook among Asia Pacific University Scholars in Malaysia (September
2014) Aida
Abdulahi, Behrang Samadi, Behrooz Gharleghi Faculty of Business and Management
Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation Technology Park Malaysia,
57000 Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
The purpose of this study is to
identify the negative effects of social network sites such as Facebook among
Asia Pacific University scholars. The researcher, distributed 152 surveys to
students of the chosen university to examine and study the negative effects.
Electronic communication is emotionally gratifying but how do such
technological distraction impact on academic performance? Because of social
media platform’s widespread adoption by university students, there is an
interest in how Facebook is related to academic performance. This paper measure
frequency of use, participation in activities and time spent preparing for
class, in order to know if Facebook affects the performance of students.
Moreover, the impact of social network site on academic performance also raised
another major concern which is health. Today social network sites are running
the future and carrier of students. Social network sites were only an
electronic connection between users, but unfortunately it has become an
addiction for students. This paper examines the relationship between social
network sites and health threat. Lastly, the paper provides a comprehensive
analysis of the law and privacy of Facebook. It shows how Facebook users
socialize on the site, while they are not aw are or misunderstand the risk
involved and how their privacy suffers as a result. Impact
of social networking sites on social interaction – a study of college students (Archana Kumari & Jyotsna Yerma
Faculty of Business and Management Asia Pacific University of Technology and
Innovation Technology Park Malaysia, 57000 Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
The popularity and development of social networking
sites has revolutionized the way of communication especially among youth. The
concept of sociability has gained a renewed interest with the emergence of the
Social Networking Sites. Interpersonal interaction and communication has been
getting replaced slowly by online communication. Although these Social Network
Sites has contributed in keeping people connected but at the same time the risk
factors associated with the use of social networking sites cannot be denied.
The purpose of the present study was to find out the impact of use of social
networking sites on their social relationship. So a total sample of 100 college
students (17 to 23 years) was taken into the sample by using purposive sampling
technique. Only those college students who are using any kind of Social
Networking Sites were included in the sample. The data was collected by using a
self-constructed tool. The tool consisted of sixty four items to test the
effects of social networking sites on college students. A significant
correlation was found between of use of social networking sites and their
social relationships. No difference was found in the use of social networking
sites among boys and girls.65% students feel that it helps them to maintain
relationship with their friends and 33% agreed that social networking sites
helps them to maintain a regular contact with their parents and teachers.
Qaboos
(2014) the Impact of Social Networking: A Study of the Influence of Smartphones
on College Students.
The use of social networking by
college students has become increasingly relevant to their academic lives.
Smartphones have added great potential by enabling an increase in the use of
social networking and in the number of hours spent on such sites. Being online
for a long time and being able to access different information from different
sources at the same time could cause information overload. Students could face
problems in filtering the information they receive and they might find it
difficult to decide which sources they can trust and, therefore, which to
select. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of social networking
on college students. To achieve this aim, the research employs various
methodologies which include descriptive/interpretive studies of the literature
and previous studies carried out by academics and industrial institutions.
It also utilizes surveys taken among university
students. A questionnaire was distributed among
179 students at different universities and higher education
institutes in the Sultanate of Oman in order to explore the influence on
college students of social networking using their smartphones.
There are three main findings: 1) college students
spend a long time on social networking sites, 2) college students are facing
problems in trusting, filtering, and selecting all the different information
accessed from social networking sites, and 3) social networks affect students
in both positive and negative ways.
Asemah (2013). The influence of
social media on the academic performance of the undergraduate students of Kogi
State Universality
The research conducted by Ezedkiel S. Asemah,
department of Mass communication, Kogi State University, Anyigba Nigeria,
RuthA. Okpomachi, department of Mass Communication, Kogi State University,
Anyigba, Nigerian and Leo O.N Edegoh, department of mass communication, Anambra
State university, vli Nigeria. In the year 2013. The paper was examined the
influence of social media on the academic performance of the undergraduate
students of Kogi State Universality, the national behind the study is to find
out whether the exposure of the students to social media has effect on their
academic performance. The paper is anchored on two theories, namely: social
information processing theory and media equation theory. The survey research
method was adopted, employing the questionnaire as a graduate students of Kogi
State university, Anyigba, exposure to social media is to a very great extent
findings also show that Facebook is the most used social media by undergraduate
students of Kogi State University. Based on the findings, the paper concludes
that exposure to social media by the undergraduate students of Kogi State
university has negative effect on their academic performance. To this end the
paper recommends that the students should pay minimal attention to social media
and focus more on their academic activities.
Jha
(2016). The Effects of Social Media on Students. Singapore University of
Science and Technology.
As social media sites continue to
grow in popularity where technology is a vital part in today’s student success
equation. This paper deals with cases how social media has affected the students.
A survey has been conducted from a number of random students and has tried to
understand if the social media has really affected the social life. Results
indicate while most college students use social media and spend many hours
checking social media sites, there was a negative aspect to college students’ use
of social media.
Yang (2003) Effects of social network on Students’
performance: a web-based forum study in taiwan.
This research investigates the
effects of social networks on students’ performance in online education which
uses networking as an adjunct mode for enhancing traditional face-to-face
education or distance education. Using data from a 40-student course on
Advanced Management Information Systems (AMIS), we empirically tested how
social networks (friendly,advising, and adversaria.
l) Related to students’ performance. First, advising
network variables are positively related to student performance both in the
class and on the forum. Adversarial variables are negatively correlated with
almost all students’ performance. Second, advising and adversarial network
variables are good determinants for overall academic performance; however,
adversarial network variables are not influential on students’ performance on
the forum. Friendship network variables are not determinants of students’ performance.
Implications for the results are also discussed. Use of Social Media and its Impact on Academic
Performance of Tertiary Institution Students: A Study of Students of Koforidua
Polytechnic, Ghana (2015) M. Owusu-Acheaw & Agatha Gifty
Larson.
The study sought to assess students’
use of social media and its effect on academic performance of tertiary
institutions students in Ghana with a focus on Koforidua Polytechnic students.
Questionnaire was used for collecting data. Out of one thousand five hundred
and seventy-eight copies of the questionnaire distributed, one thousand five
hundred and eight were retrieved which represented a response rate of 95.5 %.
The study revealed that majority of the respondents had mobile phones which
also had Internet facility on them and had knowledge of the existence of many
media sites. The study further confirmed that most of the respondents visit
their social media sites using their phones and spend between thirty minutes to
three hours per day. In addition the study revealed that the use of social
media sites had affected academic performance of the respondents negatively and
that there was direct relationship between the use of social media sites and
academic performance. The study recommends among others that, students with
mobile phones having internet facility should be encouraged to use it to
supplement their research in the library rather than the usual charting with
friends all the time. Students should be encouraged to limit the time they
spend on their social media sites per day and advise them to rather substitute
those hours to read novels to improve their knowledge. Since the use of social
media sites had affected the academic work of students negatively there is the
urgent need for the introduction of students to the availability of novels and
other information resources or materials that can help them academically.
Harrath (2016) Impact of Social Networking Sites on Student Academic Performance: The Case of University of Bahrain.
The purpose of this research is to study the impact of
Social Networking Sites on student academic performance. An online survey was
conducted and 628 students of University of Bahrain replied. This research
studies and explores the relationships between the use of SNS and students'
academic performance. The survey questions 21 were grouped into 8 variables
that identify the interest that the students draw from SNS. Furthermore, these
variables aim to show the effects of SNS on students' academic performance and
the futuristic online and offline paradigms that can enhance teaching
methodology. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS was used to
analyse the collected data and find correlations between SNS and the students'
academic performance. From this research it was found that the SNS have
positive and negative impacts on student academic performance. At the end, the
authors came up with fruitful recommendations on how to get benefit from the
SNS to improve the learning process.
Dola (2012) Impact of Social Media on Students Academic Performance (A Case Study of Students of University Of Abuja)
The aim of the
study was to analyze the impact of social media on the student’s academic
performance [A study of students of University of Abuja]. To achieve this, the
survey research method was used. Subjects were drawn from the University of
Abuja, using the simple random sampling technique and purposive sampling. Four
research questions guided the study. Research findings showed that a great
number of students in University of Abuja, had access to the internet. To this
end, the researcher recommended that sites should be created for educational
purposes as well. This is to create a balance between social networking and
academic activities of students to avoid setbacks in the academic performance
of the students.
Donal
(2014) Social media as tools for political education: a study of facebook and
twitter in the 2015 presidential election Bingham University students.
The study basically examined the influence
of social media as tools for political education: a study of Facebook and
Twitter in the 2015 Presidential election. The emergency and rising of social
media otherwise known as citizen media in this digital era have
revolutionalised the socio- economic and particularly political development of
Nigeria. It offers platform for political debates, political campaign and
political mobilization. Survey research method was adopted in which data were
collected among Bingham University students using questionnaire. Four hundred
(400) questionnaires were distributed, out of which, three hundred and sixty
(360) copies were retrieved and analysed. Findings show that many of the
respondents maintained that, they participated in the 2015 election while they
also search and participated in political debate and discussions on social
media before, during and after the election with many served as voters during
the 2015 elections. In the same vein, social networking usage during the
election was very high for the first time in Nigeria political history, no
wonder many submitted that their participation in the election was as a result
of the online discussion platform such as facebook and twitters. Similarly,
lots of respondents were busy reading and commenting on political matters
during the 2015 electioneering period, they also, optimistic that the future of
social media in election is very bright in Nigeria and some of the element that
need to correct in future use of social media for elections include but not
limited to “name calling” and “posting of unverified information or result
during election”. It is recommended that social media should be improved to
enhance better public mobilization, sensitization and true democracy in Nigeria
through citizen sensitization programmes.
Egwon
(2011) Social media as tools for political education Bingham University students. Faculty of
Business and Management Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation Technology
Park Malaysia.
The study basically examined the influence
of social media as tools for political education: a study of Facebook and
Twitter in the 2015 Presidential election. The emergency and rising of social
media otherwise known as citizen media in this digital era have revolutionised
the socio- economic and particularly political development of Nigeria. It
offers platform for political debates, political campaign and political
mobilization. Survey research method was adopted in which data were collected
among Bingham University students using questionnaire. Four hundred (400)
questionnaires were distributed, out of which, three hundred and sixty (360)
copies were retrieved and analysed. Findings show that many of the respondents
maintained that, they participated in the 2015 election while they also search
and participated in political debate and discussions on social media before,
during and after the election with many served as voters during the 2015
elections. In the same vein, social networking usage during the election was
very high for the first time in Nigeria political history, no wonder many
submitted that their participation in the election was as a result of the
online discussion platform such as facebook and twitters. Similarly, lots of
respondents were busy reading and commenting on political matters during the
2015 electioneering period, they also, optimistic that the future of social
media in election is very bright in Nigeria and some of the element that need
to correct in future use of social media for elections include but not limited
to “name calling” and “posting of unverified information or result during
election”. It is recommended that social media should be improved to enhance
better public mobilization, sensitization and true democracy in Nigeria through
citizen sensitization programmes.
Ogwen (2017) Effect of social media
on academic performance of secondary school students.
The study
concerned with the effect of Social Media on Academic Performance of Secondary
School Students” with a specific focus on Ilobu Commercial Grammar School and
Ima High School, Ilobu. There is no doubt about the fact that the world is
completely in a global village as postulated by Professor Marshall McLuhan,
according to him the world is now compressed into a single electronic room
where information from far and near can be exchanged with a click of a mouse.
The research is anchored on technological determinism theory and diffusion of
innovation theory. A survey method was adopted with the use of a questionnaire
to elicit data from the respondents. The respondents were drawn using
multi-stage sampling technique. The data collected were analysed and interpreted
using descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage). Findings show that
social media enable people all over the world to engage in communication not
only to share ideas and feelings but also to share it in interpersonal way
irrespective of the location and time. They use social media to get in touch
with some of their friends, including old friends to discover and establish new
friendships. Despite the benefit, the majority of the social media lose
their privacy and disclose the security and sensitive information to strangers
online while many are now social media addicted, today many spend more than ten
hours chatting and interacting with friends. It is recommended that social
media users must ensure they understand why they are joining the social media
site in the first place so that they would not be overcome by any negative
impacts but rather they can use these sites for maximum benefit.
Lawanson
(2016) Undergraduate Student Use of Social Media: Case Study of Built
Environment Disciplines at the University of Lagos, Nigeria (2016).
With increasing internet penetration
and the introduction of various social media platforms into everyday life, this
study investigates internet use of students in built environment disciplines at
the University of Lagos, Nigeria. A questionnaire 261 survey of 407 third year
and final year undergraduate students in the department of Architecture,
Building, Estate Management, Quantity Surveying and Urban and Regional Planning
was carried out. The study profiled internet use among the students, and how
social media affected life and learning outcomes. It was discovered that over
90% of students accessed the internet through mobile devices, while more than
80% of students across the disciplines relied on social media for peer
interaction rather than academic activities. Dependence on social media had no
significant relationship on academic performance. However, for many students in
Urban Planning, Estate Management and Architecture, use of applications such as
Google Earth and Easy Class had enhanced their learning experience, thus
highlighting the potentials of social media for academic purposes. The paper
concludes by suggesting strategies for increasing collaborative and interactive
learning opportunities through the incorporation of social media applications
in academic activities.
Mwashegwa
(2015) An investigation on the impact of online social networking on academic
performance among high school students in urban areas: a case study of
westlands sub-county, nairobi. Erick.
Online social networking sites have
changed the way people interact and communicate. Most students who are members
to these online networking sites spend numerous hours on these sites at the
expense of study time. This research paper looked at the impact of online
social networking sites on academic performance among high school students in
urban areas. The study focused on three respondents i.e. students, parents and
teachers and used questionnaire and interviews as tools of study.
The findings of this study shed insight on how
students use online social networking sites, the time spent and the kind of
information sought. The study also provides recommendations on how online
networking can be used in order to improve academic purposes.
(2015) Effect of Social Networking Site on Students’ Academic Performance in SIMS, Mangalore: An Investigative Study GE-INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH (GE-IJMR).
The rapid growth
of internet and communication technology has made human beings to quickly
connect and interact with group of people from any part of the world, through
their PC or mobile phone. Adolescent age people are more attracted by Social
Networking Site (SNS), a platform for people to share their ideas, express
their feelings and to reconnect with old friends. The student’s community
spends their daily life’s considerable time in different activities by a set of
names as Wall Posts, Status Updates, Activity Updates, Activity feeds, Profile
Building, Thumbs Ups and chatting. This study will focus on the effect of SNS
on student academic performance, using SIMS (Srinivas Institute of Management
Studies), Mangalore city in Karnataka State of India as a case study. A review
of literature is done on negative correlates and relationship between academic
performance and usage of SNS. A 23 personally administrated questionnaire was
designed and sent to 136 students of UG and PG courses in SIMS and population
are from different states of India. This study helps to find and evaluate one
of the reasons for fall in students’ academic performance and hours spent for
studying per week. Students’ community can use SNS effectively for their
constructive development activities such as discussing class assignment,
communicate and share with friends new information, submit of a project and
assignment, to make positive comments on classes and in appreciating the
success of their friends.
Ayodele (2015)
Social
Networking and Students' Academic Performance: the Role of Attention Deficit,
Predictors of Behavior and Academic Competence, Department of Computer and
Information Sciences, Department of Business Management, Covenant University,
Ota, Ogun-State, Nigeria
There are contrasting opinions in
literature by researchers on the impact of online social networking services
(OSNS) on students' academic performance. To learn more about the impact of
online social networking (OSN) on academic performance, a survey of
undergraduate students of a private university in south-west Nigeria was
conducted. Survey results were analyzed using structural equation modeling
(SEM) and partial least squares (PLS) approach.
The results revealed a statistically significant
positive effect of academic competence and predictors of behavior on student
time management on OSN and their academic performances. The result also
revealed a statistically significant positive effect of attention deficit on
time spent on OSNS and a statistically significant negative effect on academic
performance. Specifically, it was determined that the higher the attention
deficit, the higher the time spent on OSN. Further, academic competence was
found to be highly correlated with characteristics that predict or influence
student behavior, while attention deficit was found to be moderately correlated
with predictors of student behavior.
(2014) Impact of Facebook Usage on Students Academic Performance Thesis (M.A.), 2014 Business economics - Marketing, Corporate Communication, CRM, Market Research, Social Media.
Today Facebook is considered as one of the most popular platforms for
online social networking among youth, and - as many researches show –
university students. The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of
social networking sites i.e. Facebook on students’ academic performance. The
study was carried out in Wollega University with regular undergraduate students
in focus. A questionnaire was designed to assess impact of Facebook usage on
Student and was administered to 384 students’ selected using stratified
sampling technique. Variables identified are time spent on Facebook, addiction
to Facebook and academic performance. The Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient was used to examine the relationship between addiction to Facebook
and time spent on Facebook and students’ academic performance. Furthermore, a
multiple linear regression was carried out to determine the relative
contribution of addiction to Facebook and time spent on Facebook to students’
academic performance. An analysis of the results was carried out using the SPSS
software package. And the findings of this study shows that time spent on
Facebook and addiction to it negatively and significantly affects students’
academic performance.
Moogela (2017) Perceptions of social media on students' academic engagement in tertiary education, John McNeill Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
Social media has
been gaining popularity among university students who use social media at
higher rates than the general population. Students consequently spend a
significant amount of time on social media, which may inevitably have an effect
on their academic engagement. Subsequently, scholars have been intrigued to
examine the impact of social media on students' academic engagement. Research
that has directly explored the use of social media and its impact on students
in tertiary institutions has revealed limited and mixed findings, particularly
within a South African context; thus leaving a window of opportunity to further
investigate the impact that social media has on students' academic engagement.
This study therefore aims to investigate the use of social media in tertiary
institutions, the impact that the use thereof has on students' academic
engagement and to suggest effective ways of using social media in tertiary
institutions to improve students' academic engagement from students'
perspectives. This study used an interpretivist (inductive) approach in order
to determine and comprehend student's perspectives and experiences towards the
use of social media and the effects thereof on their academic engagement. A
single case study design at Rhodes University was used to determine students'
perceptions and data was collected using an online survey. The findings reveal
that students use social media for both social and academic purposes. Students
further perceived that social media has a positive impact on their academic
engagement and suggest that using social media at tertiary level could be
advantageous and could enhance students' academic engagement.
Singh (2013)
Relationship between Social Media and Academic Performance in Distance Education,
Universal Journal of Educational Research
The scope and method of imparting
distance education to the learner has evolved over a period of time. Various
models of distance education have been introduced over the years; the latest
introduction is the use of Web 2.0 technologies to make distance learning more
analytical, flexible, interactive, and collaborative for both the teacher and
the taught. This research paper has assessed the purpose of usage of social
media tools, specifically Facebook, Blogs, Google groups, SkyDrive and Twitter
by the students for academic purposes. Further, the relationship between usage
of Facebook and academic performance of students has been tested statistically.
The study reveals that majority of the students access various social media tools
for information sharing and personal interaction. The academic performance of
the students is independent of the use of Facebook as a social media tool for
academic purpose. The survey found that a majority of respondents (73.87%)
claimed to be using social media tools and Facebook scored 3.93 (scale of 5) in
terms of usage and preference. Also, academic performance and use of Facebook
for academic purposes are determined to be independent of each other. Overall,
there is a favourable response to e-enablement and use of social media tools
for improving student-institution interaction.
Nsizwana (2017) Social Media Use and
Academic Performance of Undergraduate Students in South African Higher
Institutions: The Case of the University of Zululand.
The
study investigated the effects of social media use on the academic performance
of undergraduate students. 68 participants were selected among students of the
University of Zululand. A survey was conducted using a five-level Likert scale
to determine if use of social media has an effect on academic performance of
students at the University of Zululand. In the first stage of analysis of the
research results, responses (n = 68) were summarized using Principal Components
Analysis (PCA) to determine the extent of contribution of Likert scale items to
the variables under study. Variables extracted were subsequently correlated and
relationships uncovered using bivariate correlations. These analyses uncovered
relationships between ‘familiarity with social networks’, ‘use of social
networks’ and the ‘academic performance’ rates of students. The analysis
further uncovered the relationships between ‘time spent on academic
activities’, ‘time spent on social media’ and the ‘classroom participation
rate’ of students. The results of the study indicated that familiarity with
social networks results in excessive use of social networks and the time spent
on academic activities. The results further showed that time spent on social
media predicts students’ academic pass rate and that classroom participation
results in better academic pass rate. It was, therefore, recommended that
students should limit the huge number of social networks they use to a more
reasonable number, which would allow them to be able to give attention to school
related activities.
Iorliam
(2016) The Impact of Social Network Usage on University Students Academic
Performance: A Case Study of Benue State University Makurdi, Nigeria. Department
of Mathematics and Computer Science, Benue State University, Makurdi,
Advancement in technology and the
increased availability of internet enabled handheld devices have significantly
increased students’ access and use of the internet. The use of social media is
enhanced by the availability and access to internet. In Nigeria and the world
today, social media has gained acceptability and has become a tool for
communication and social cohesion amongst students. The use of this assortment
of social media has diverse effects on the user’s life, some of which are
negative and others, positive. This study is aimed at investigating the impact
of Social Network Usage on University Students Academic Performance using Benue
State University Makurdi, Nigeria as a case study. The study sampled 1596
students. The study focused on three key impact areas: the time spent on social
media, the frequency of visiting social media and the relationship between the
volume of social friends and a student’s academic performance. Correlation and
regression analyses were used to determine and measure the extent to which the
three variables were related to students’ CGPA. The study adopted a paper-based
close-ended questionnaire and was restricted to undergraduate students in three
majors. The study found that the time spent on social media, the frequency of
visit and the total number of online friends has a statistically significant
relationship with a student’s academic performance. It is therefore recommended
that access to social media should be restricted and controlled, and the idle
time should rather be channelled into studying. This, it is believed, will
improve students’ performance.
Jaafar (2017) The impact of using social media and internet on academic performance:
case study bahrain universities.
The
internet and social media provide students with a range of academic benefits
and opportunities to enhance their learning process. The main goal of this
research is to examine the impact of using the social media on the academic
performance. The new social networks, such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter,
etc., can affect the behaviour and academic performance of the universities'
students; therefore the selected universities were Ahlia University, Applied
Science University and University of Bahrain. The sample was (150) students
distributed equally among the three universities. The research questions will
answer (1) what is the evolution of ICTs and the Internet in the World; (2)
what is the impact caused by ICT in education; (3) what are the effects of
social media on the academic performance of students at Bahrain Universities;
(4) what are the social networking sites that are more popular among students
at Bahrain Universities. The results show that the social media has a positive
impact on academic performance and 57% of students prefer the mobile
application WhatsApp as a social media for their academic purpose.
Doleck
(2017) Social Networking and Academic Performance: A Generalized Structured
Component Approach, McTavish Street, Montreal, QC H3A 1Y2, Canada.
The
proliferation of social networking sites (SNS) use by students has been
accompanied by both concerns and excitement regarding the consequences of SNS
use. Research on SNS use has become increasingly popular in the educational
literature. There are a variety of ways that SNS use can affect students, and
indeed the work in this stream of research has documented the links between SNS
use and various outcome variables. One research question raised given the
popularity of SNS with students which has been both limited and inconsistent in
published results concerns the link between SNS use and academic performance.
As SNS use increases, such questions aimed at disentangling the link have
become increasingly important to address. However, related investigations have
yielded conflicting results and are deficient in documenting the interplay and
influences of other variables. The present study aims to clarify the
association between SNS and academic performance by testing an exploratory
model to examine the connections between SNS use, student-school traits, and
academic performance. We suggest that educational researchers should
distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive SNS use in academic settings.
Dzandza (2017) Effect of Social Media on Academic Performance of Students
in Ghanaian Universities: A Case Study of University of Ghana, Legon.
A Case Study of University of Ghana, Legon Library Philosophy and
Practice
This research
work was conducted to investigate the effects of social media on academic
performance of students in university of Ghana. The type of research adopted
was descriptive survey and the instrument for data collection was the
questionnaire. A total sample size of two hundred (200) using cluster sampling
technique of probability sampling was used to acquire the relevant data from
the population. The findings of the study showed that a number of students are
addicted to social media and this was found to be detrimental to their academic
life despite its importance on students’ academic life such as disseminating
knowledge, group discussions and building relationships through these sites. To
this end, the researchers recommended that faculties or schools in various
universities organize public lectures on this topic to enlighten students more
on the possible implications of these sites when they are not surfed
judiciously; lecturers should direct works and assignments through these sites
to encourage their use for academic purposes and also the school authorities
should restrict access to certain networking sites that may distract students
during learning
2.6 Summary
and uniqueness of the study
In this research
study the social media and academic performance of public senior secondary
school students of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area were highlighted and
discussed. The concept of social media and academic performance was carefully
reviewed. The factors influence academic performance and assessment of academic performance work discussed. The theoretical
framework contains the social learning theory by Albert Bandura (1977) and the
theory of performance were discussed. The
research study discussed so far makes us to understand that a number of
scholars from different aspect of educational sectors have studied extensively
the effect and impact of social media
and academic performance among students and other related educational aspect. Empirical
review and finding from various related literature has the similarities and
uniqueness on the following aspect the effect of social media on academic performance, the problem facing by the coming of social media among students the
impact of social networking and influence of Smartphone on college students
etc. some universities outside Nigeria conducted their research on effect and
impact of social media on university students through their academic
performable. While some conducted their research on tertiary institutions and
how it affect their academic performance. What make our research uniqueness on
the one way or the other is that, the research we are conducting how is on one
society in our areas and on public senior secondary schools students on that
area. The topic discuss on the effect of social media and academic performance
in senior secondary school students as recent research in the society of
Nassarawa Zonal Education Area in Kano State.
The uniqueness of our study when
compared with varieties of research and journals on the effect and impact of
social media among the students and other sector of the human life, the
research conducted through those materials its shows that both conducted the
research on the effect or Impact of the Social Media on the Students
Performance which look similar to our topic of the study and by going deep to
some topic above we encountered and experience many educational procedure
conducted in their study and the way they conducted their research and the
technics they use while collecting their data. The topic of our research has
the similarities or Uniqueness on the following aspect: The Effect of Social
Media on Academic Performance, The problem facing by the coming of social media
among the secondary school students, possible solution of the given topic. Some
universities outside Nigeria conducted their research on effect and impact of
social media on university students through their academic performance and some
conducted their research on tertiary institutions and how it affect their
academic performance. While the research that we are conducting now is on one
society in our area and which looks new when compare with other research topics
that look similar to the named topic. The topic discuss on the effect social
media and academic performance in senior secondary school students as recent
research in the society of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area in Kano State. This
militate the academic performance of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area Students.
CHAPTER
THREE
RESERCH METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
The information needed for study is employed by using
all the necessary methodology and procedures. It is under this chapter that the
researcher will make an attempt to explain and discusses all procedures. This
research is designed to academic performance of public senior secondary school
of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area, Kano State. This chapter shows haw the
researchers carried out or undertakes the study and discussed the instrument
used for scoring the data. The chapter there for attempt to explain or discuss
the research design. It also gives detail account of the population of the
study. Sample size, sampling techniques, data collection instruments, data
collection procedures and method of data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
Quantitative method is chosen for the
research. Data was collected using primary data set through the distribution of
questionnaire. According to Bakar (2001) questionnaires to acquire primary data
the best suitable research are based on experiment, observation and survey.
Hence, the survey method can supply researchers with data on attitude,
feelings, beliefs and Envisioned behaviour that is said by Tull and Kawkins
(1990). Additionally, the assembling of different kind of info from the
respondents, questionnaires will be appropriate for this research which will
enable get the actual info from the target population.
A
random sampling technique was used. In this research two schools are involved.
This is because in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area research are hardly done in
this area. The second reason is that the researcher chose these schools as it
has more number of students in both schools as compared to other schools. 120
questionnaires will be distributed in both schools by means of direct contacts
which is face-to-face with the respondents. The questionnaires is divided into
two sections, section A consist of the demography of the respondents such as
(age, gender, school, age, class, and nationality) while as section B contains
the targeted questions to convey the entire enquiry.
The
respondents differ from first team students to final year students. The
investigation uses convenient sampling. Since, respondent are willingness to
participate in the research. This makes it further suitable for this research
than any other form of sampling and respondents will be picked at random.
In
order to formulate the research questions, hierarchical sampling techniques
will be used to sample the respondents. The research will use an evaluation
question that is written in English language because instructions in these two schools
are based on the queen’s language which all the students understand and can
answer the questions asked without any difficulties. Nonetheless, according to
Saunders et al (2012), Likert scale is the utmost suitable rating to be used in
designing the research questionnaires. A scale of 1-5 will used to finger out
respondent pact to questions enquired. This scale is best suitable since it
gives respondents the assertion for strong pact or not.
This
study will analyse the data collected through quantitative analysis. Because
statistical analysis give the scholar the chance to get expressive information through
mean output (Carrol, 2001). Percentage will help to survey if the mean is in
line with the view (Saunder et al, 2003). To analyse the data the descriptive
statistics of questionnaire will be acquired from SPSS in order to find out the
normality of the questionnaire based on skewness and kurtosis statistics.
Followed by the running of the reliability test, validity test, correlation,
regression and also find out the sample adequacy using the SPSS in order to analyse
the collected data for the findings of the study. This will allow the
researcher ascertain whether the respondents agree to it or not that the
variable social media platform have an effect on their academic performance in Nassarawa
Zonal Education Area.
3.3
Population of the Study
The
population in this research are all the public senior secondary students of
Nassarawa Zonal Education Area. The total population comprised 82,364 Students
in public senior secondary school of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area. The total
population of male students are 45,192 while the total population of female
students are 37,172.
3.4
Sample and Sampling Technique
A
sample of 351 students were selected for the conduct of this study with
critically taking into consideration the population targeted for the study, the
table used for depicting the sample is the popular research advisor table for
sample size determination (2006), moreover, the confidence limit was determined
at 95%, which is equivalent to 5% level of significance.
Meanwhile
the systematic random sampling technique was employed in which student class
register was used to select the sample with taking all students that fall in
the odd number from the list of the register.
3.5
Research Instrument
A
well-constructed and self-developed questionnaire titled “Social Media and Students’
Academic Performance Questionnaire (SMASAP)” was used to get the desired
information from the students. The questionnaire was divided into two sections
(A and B). Section A was for collection of information on personal data of
respondents while Section B consisted of questions that elicited responses from
the respondents with response options: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree
(D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).
3.5.1
Validity of the Instrument
The
self-developed questionnaire title “Social Media and Students’ Academic
performance questionnaire” (SMASAP) was made and presented to the supervisor
for scrutiny, some specialists in psychology and tests and measurement have
also glance and checked for the content, Face and construct validity of the
questionnaire, their observation and input where duly affected.
3.5.2
Reliability of the Instrument
In
order to ascertain the utmost consistency of the items in the questionnaire, a
scientific method of test-retest was conducted on the student not forming part
of the sample for this study, a reliability index of 0.78 was obtain to represent the person
product moment correlation (PPMC).
3.6
Scoring of Instrument
The
questionnaire was scaled at four point modified Likert-type in which it
considered the extreme positive end as strongly agreed (SA) with 4 point and
the extreme negative end as strongly disagreed (SD) with 1 point as the score.
Similarly, 3 stands for agreed and 2 stands for disagreed making the scaled
points as 4321 respectively.
3.7
Administration of Instruments
The
researcher collected the needed data through the use of questionnaire and its
administration in the selected classes. The administration of the questionnaire
were carried out by the researcher. A total number of 351 copies of the
questionnaire were distributed to elicit responses from the students and
retrieved on the spot by the researcher. A total number of 8 questionnaires
were missing while leaving the researcher with 343 valid questionnaires.
3.8
Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive
data analysis was used in the study, the means and standard deviations were
used to answer the projected research questions, as the average of the scale
points is (4+3+2+1) = 10/4 = 2.50.
The
value 2.5 was used as decision rule for all the items statement. A score below
the decision rule indicates disagreement while that above 2.50 shows agreement (Nwane
kezi, et’al 2011, Endeley, 2014).
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS
AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS.
4.1 Introduction
This chapter
contains three sections, the first section presented the distribution of
respondents of the study on the bases on gender, age and form or classes, the
second part projected the analysis of data collected in this study as well as
interpretations beneath each table of analysis for explanation and ingesting by
the audience, the third part which is the last in the chapter comes with
discussion of findings under the study.
4.2 Distribution of respondents based on gender
Table 4.1
Distribution of teachers by gender
|
Students gender
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
|
Male
|
143
|
41.6
|
|
Female
|
200
|
58.3
|
Source:
Field study (2018)
In the table
4.1 above, it can be observed that; there are 343 Students responding to the
questionnaire, it is clear that we have 143 Male Students which is constituting
41.6% and there 200 Female Students which there percentage is 58.3% of the
sample. This shows that there are more number of Female Students respondent
than Male in the questionnaire.
4.3 Distribution of respondents based on age
Table 4.2
Distribution of student’s age range.
|
Students
age range
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
|
13-16 years
|
162
|
47.2%
|
|
17-18 years
|
145
|
42.2%
|
|
19 and above
years
|
36
|
11.4%
|
Source:
Field study (2018)
In the table
4.2 above, it can be observed that; the respondent’s age rate is 13-16 years
which constituting 162 Sample of the Students and percentage is 47.2%.
Similarly, 16-18 years respondent to the questionnaire constituting 145 sample
of the Students which make 42.2%. However, 19-Above year’s respondents to the
questionnaire constituting 36 sample of the Students which make 11.4%. Form our
observation we find that the students high use of social media site in public
senior secondary school students of Nassarawa Zonal Area.
4.4 Data analysis
Research
question one: What are the available Social media
sites operating in Nassarawa zonal education area?
Table 4.3
Percentage distribution of Social Media operating in Nassarawa zonal education
area
Source: Field
study 2018
In
the above table 4.3: It can be observed that, all the three categories of
social media site are being participated among the public Senior Secondary
School Students of Nassarawa Zonal
Education Area. However WhatsApp have 142 from 343 of the sample which make the
percentage of 41.40%. Similarly the student responding to the Facebook are 93
out of 343 of the sample which make the percentage of 27.11%. The Twitter,
Instagram, and the likes have 108 out of 343 from the sample which make the
percentage of 31.49%. These shows that the available social media site
operating to the students Nassarawa Zonal Educations are WhatsApp, Facebook and
Like (Twitter, Instagram etc.). The available operating social media site is
WhatsApp followed by the (Twitter, Instagram etc.) and the Facebook have lower
available operated social media site from the public senior secondary school
student of Nassarawa Zonal Education Area. However the respondents have high
available operating WhatsApp become rampant, because the platform is more
easier when operating and the features is minimized for the level of every
user, in terms of information and friends request, WhatsApp related two users
when both have the number of each other before becoming friends. While the
moderate available social media sites operative among the students are the
likes such as: (Twitter, Instagram etc.), the likes become at the middle due to
less popularity and wide range cover in the world, among the likes some of them
build their concern on news and related like Twitter etc. and some concern on
advertising and social life issues like Instagram etc. the lower available social
media sites operated among the students is Facebook, the Facebook user privacy
is open when compared with WhatsApp user can trace any Facebook user by using
search engine to trace any user by his name, surname, family name, and nickname
if known these contribute the downgrade of the Facebook user in the world. This is in line with Singh (2013) The survey
found that a majority of respondents (73.87%) claimed to be using social media
tools and Facebook scored 3.93 (scale of 5) in terms of usage and preference.
Research question two:
Do public senior secondary school students of Nassarawa zonal education area
use social media?
Table
4.4 Distribution of Item means and standard deviation on responses for use of
Social media by students in Nassarawa zonal education
|
S/N
|
Statement
|
Means
|
Std/Dev.
|
|
1
|
There are available social media sites
for senior secondary school students to visit in Nassarawa Zonal Education
Area.
|
3.35
|
0.69
|
|
2
|
Many
students spend much of their money on social media subscription
|
3.10
|
0.75
|
|
3
|
Visiting social media sites become rampant
by senior secondary school students in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area
|
3.03
|
0.92
|
|
4
|
Some
of the senior secondary school students in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area are
not involve in visiting social media site.
|
3.27
|
0.80
|
|
5
|
Students are too much use social media
than their learning.
|
2.38
|
1.04
|
|
6
|
Students
use social media sites for non-academic purpose
|
3.00
|
0.98
|
|
7
|
Students use social media sites for
academic purpose
|
3.14
|
0.81
|
|
8
|
Extent
of using social media sites by students is too high
|
3.08
|
0.86
|
|
|
Grand Mean/Standard deviation
|
3.04
|
0.86
|
In
the table 4.4 above; it can be observed that, all the means score of the items
has 3.00 and above means, meaning that the senior secondary school students use
social media in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area, however the item number five
(5) which is students are too much use social media than their leaning has a
score mean of 2.38, which is less than 3.00. The decision rule of the scale is
2.5 meaning that all the items are accepted by the students. Similarly, the
Grand mean is 3.04 which mean the public senior secondary students use social
media in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area.
This
is in line with shana (2012), which revealed that students use social network
mainly for making friends and chatting. The result showed that only 26 percent
of the students (respondents) indicated that they use social media for academic
purpose. Similarly, Oye (2012) notes that most of the younger students use
social networking sites mainly for socializing activities, rather than for
academic purpose. A new research study finds that widespread use of media among
freshman college students may compromise academic performance. The study is one
of the first to explore mechanisms of media effects on academic outcomes,
investigators determined that use of media, from texting to chatting on cell
phones to posting stats updates on Facebook may lower grades for freshman
female students (Nauert, 2007). This
is in line with Ogwen (2017) Findings show that social
media enable people all over the world to engage in communication not only to
share ideas and feelings but also to share it in interpersonal way irrespective
of the location and time. They use social media to get in touch with some of
their friends, including old friends to discover and establish new friendships.
Despite the benefit, the majority of the social media lose their privacy
and disclose the security and sensitive information to strangers online while
many are now social media addicted, today many spend more than ten hours
chatting and interacting with friends.
Research
question three? What is the level of access to social media sites in
Nassarawa zonal education?
Table
4.5 Distribution of responses on level of access on social media use.
|
Levels of Access
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
|
Low level
(0-10)
|
55
|
16.04
|
|
Moderate level
(11-12)
|
113
|
32.94
|
|
High level
(13-14)
|
175
|
51.02
|
|
Total
|
343
|
100.00
|
In the table 4.5
above; it can be observed that, the access is which included, low level with 55
respondents constituting 16.04, and the moderate with 113 respondents forming
32.04%, and the high level which is 175 with 51.02%. This is shows that, there
high access to social media sites. This is in line with Ogwen (2017) Findings
show that social media enable people all over the world to engage in
communication not only to share ideas and feelings but also to share it in
interpersonal way irrespective of the location and time. They use social media
to get in touch with some of their friends, including old friends to discover
and establish new friendships. Despite the benefit, the majority of the
social media lose their privacy and disclose the security and sensitive
information to strangers online while many are now social media addicted, today
many spend more than ten hours chatting and interacting with friends. It is
recommended that social media users must ensure they understand why they are
joining the social media site in the first place so that they would not be
overcome by any negative impacts but rather they can use these sites for
maximum benefit.
Research question four: What
is the effect of social media use on academic performance of public senior
secondary school students in Nassarawa zonal education?
Table
4.6: Means and standard deviations on responses on effect of social media use
on academic performance of public senior secondary school students.
|
S/n
|
Statement
|
Means
|
Std/Dev.
|
|
1
|
Students consumed their times on social
media site more than their studies
|
3.13
|
0.88
|
|
2
|
Due
to social media visit, students have no time to concentrate during
examinations.
|
3.25
|
0.79
|
|
3
|
Students’ academic performance has
negative effect by using social media sites
|
3.29
|
0.83
|
|
4
|
Students’
academic performance have no effect by using social media site
|
3.18
|
0.81
|
|
5
|
Many academic performance of the
students is average as a result of social media sites visits.
|
3.11
|
0.85
|
|
6
|
Visiting
social media site made students to be lazy there by affecting their academic
performance negatively
|
2.92
|
1.00
|
|
7
|
Many students imitate behaviors from
social media site which affect their academic performance.
|
3.28
|
0.71
|
|
|
Grand Mean/Standard deviation
|
3.16
|
0.84
|
In
the table 4.6 above: It gave an indication on the respondents views about the
effect of social media use on academic performance. In regarding to their
views, different opinions where realize. And from that table, it reads that all
the means score of the items has 3.00 and above means, and the item umber six
has a score mean of 2.92, which is less than 3.00. And the item number six (6)
which is visiting social media sites made students to be lazy there by
affecting their academic performance negatively has a score of mean of 2.92,
which is less than 3.00. The decision rule of the scale is 2.5 meaning that all
the items are accepted by the students. However, the grand mean is 3.36 which
means academic performance of public senior secondary school students in
Nassarawa Zonal Education Area have effect by visiting social media sites. This
is in line with Jha (2016). Results indicate while most college students use
social media and spend many hours checking social media sites, there was a
negative aspect to college students’ use of social media. This is in line with
Nsizwana (2017) The results of the study indicated
that familiarity with social networks results in excessive use of social
networks and the time spent on academic activities. The results further showed
that time spent on social media predicts students’ academic pass rate and that
classroom participation results in better academic pass rate. It was,
therefore, recommended that students should limit the huge number of social
networks they use to a more reasonable number, which would allow them to be
able to give attention to school related activities. Similarly this is in line
with the findings of Dzandza (2017) showed
that a number of students are addicted to social media and this was found to be
detrimental to their academic life despite its importance on students’ academic
life such as disseminating knowledge, group discussions and building
relationships through these sites.
4.5 Discussion of findings
Findings
show that the Public Senior Secondary School Students has available social
media sites operating in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area. This is evident in the
majority of the respondents who agree that from the three categories of social
media are being participated in Nassarawa zonal education area, however WhatsApp
has (41.40%), Facebook has (27.11%) and the likes (Twitter, Instagram etc.) Has (31.49 %) all from of the sample. This is
mainly because they use social media for various purposes. It was highlighted
in the finding of Karpinski (2009) that social media plat forms (Facebook,
WhatsApp etc.) students usually devote lesser time to their studies has to
compared to non-students did and
subsequently has lower performance. Findings further show that WhatsApp is the
social media site that is most used and available operating by the students in
Nassarawa Zonal Education Area. This is evident in the majority of the respondents
who agreed that WhatsApp is the social media site mostly used by the students
in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area. However, WhatsApp is an American proprietary
cross platform instant messaging client for smart phones. It uses the internet
to send text message, documents, images, video, user location and audio media
messages to other users using standard cellular mobile numbers. It was suggested
that on February 2016, WhatsApp had a user base of one Billion making it the
most population messaging application.
Similarly,
Facebook being the second from the categories of social media that operating in
the area, because it allows its users to create a profile, search and receive
friend request. Participants can upload profile pictures, tag pictures and
comment of pictures of friends. It also gives participants the opportunity to
upload and share information, either public or private. It gradually added
support for students at various other universities and later to high school
student. Since 2006, anyone who is at least 13 years old was allowed to become
a registered user of the website, through the age requirement may be higher depending
on applicable local laws. Additionally, the likes (Twitter, Instagram etc.) are
the remaining factories of Social Media operating in the area. This is evident
in the majority of respondents who agreed to that, as in 2003 Twitter was one
of the ten most-visited websites and has been described as the “SMS of the
Internet” as of May 2015, Twitter has more than 500 million users, out of which
more than 332 million are active. Also, Instagram as a free mobile app which
service rapidly gained popularity, with other 10 million active users as of
April 2012 and over 300 million as of December, 2014.
Based
on our findings, the public senior secondary school students of Nassarawa Zonal
Education Area used Social media with the grand mean of 3.04, from the item the
respondents agreed to that shows they visited Social Media site so rampant and
too high for academic and non-academic purposes. Also, the level of access to
Social Media site in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area is very high with the
frequency of 175 and 51.02% from the items the respondents agreed to show they
communicates with their relatives and chatting with their friends which
evidently shows that they affected their academic performance.
The
findings also show that, the effect of Social Media use by public senior
secondary school students in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area has the grand mean
of 3.16. This is also respondents answered in the affirmative. Similarly, items
in table 4.6 shows that social media have negative effect on the academic
performance of the public senior secondary school students of Nassarawa Zonal
Education Area. Students who consumed much of their time on Social Media are
likely to perform poorly in their academics.
This
is because, instead of concentration during examinations, they spend their time
communicating with relatives and chatting with friends via the Social Media and
this will definitely have negative effect on their academic performance,
because there is no way you can perform well academically. Increasingly,
though, students visit the social media site made them to be lazy thereby
affecting their academic performance negatively.
CHAPTER
FIVE
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter
includes the general summary of the findings in this study, similarly, the
conclusion of the major findings is also found in the chapter, The last part of
the chapter is putting onward a rational recommendations based on the findings
of the study . This can be of immense importance to stake holders and policy
makers in Education.
5.2 Summary of Findings
In this
study, we have observed the following major findings are summarized below:
i.
Result shows that the available social media sites operating
in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area was WhatsApp has the largest percentage of
41.40% for all three categories of the social media sites.
ii.
Also, the public senior secondary school students of
Nassarawa Zonal Education use social media from all the items are accepted by
the students with grand means of 3.04.
iii. Similarly, findings observed that
there are high number of students with high access to social media sites in
Nassarawa Zonal Education Area.
iv. Furthermore, findings from the study
shows that the effect of social media use on academic performance of public
senior secondary school students in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area was accepted
from all the instrument use, with grand mean of 3.04. However result shows that
there is relationship between social media and academic performance of the
students.
5.3 Conclusion
Conclusively,
the study has projected a very significant information needed for the
development of education not only in municipal local council but to all other
part of Kano state in particular and Nigeria in general. The findings can be
observed as below;
5.4 Recommendations
As it has been a tradition for an
Academic research, this study should not be an exception to provide some
logical recommendation that will make this study of significance to mankind;
the following are the recommendation that need to be in place:
Students are advice to limit their
times spending on social media sites per day, they should encourage themselves
to read the relevant academic books, novels and the likes in order to improve
their knowledge. Since this study confirm that the use of social media sites
had affected academic performance of students negatively. There is urgent needs
for students to read the available books and visit library to gets information
on E-Materials resources to help themselves through their academic lines.
Social networking sites should be expanded and new pages should be creates to
enhance the academic activities to avoid deficiency in the students’ academic
performance.
Students
should also create balance between chatting and academic activities means more
attention should be paid to academic activities than the social media sites.
Students
with phones getting to internet facility should be encourage to either use it
for supplement to their academic work rather than the mass chatting with
colleagues all their time.
Parents should endeavor in over
seeing their children’s learning activities by cross checking their day to day
academic activities immediately they come back home to ensures appropriate
acquiring and learning achievement and effective performance of their children
through the activities of their classes.
Parents
also play a vital role in providing materials for learning of their children at
home more than to provide expensive planes for their children which lead to
their (children) engagement in social media. In line with this parent should at
least visits their children’s schools time to time either weekly, monthly or
termly in order to have the academic information of their children and also
find the possible solution in guiding their children in order to grasp their
ability toward learning.
In
this regard parent also can have effort in controlling their children from
using social media sites that militating their academic future. Parent should
further to joins hands with PTA committees of their children schools to find an
outcome which can eradicate the amount of using social media by students which
always cause interruption to their academic performance school administrators.
School administrators should try to
organize an orientations to their students either in termly based to call the
attentions of those youngers (students) to avoid engage on social media sites
more than their studies. Even if they want engage it supposed to be in related
to their academic line. By doing so it will improve their standard of
educational carrier and make them to afford to learn better. And also acquire
more than to engage in social media beside their academic purposes.
Teacher
also assist in enlighten the students in the class due to the effect of social
media sites on academic performance negatively which lead to downgrade at the
end of their studies.
Therefore,
school administrator are urged to provide visual library so as to encourage the
students in using internet for academic work through online materials.
School
counsellors should also play an important role in organizing seminars for the
students, extra-curricular activities in order to deliver more information,
announcement that will assist in solving the problems of reducing chatting,
WhatsApp, Instagram and Facebook by students which cannot benefits them because
it does not have correlation with their students respectively. School
management should encourage their students respectively. School management
should encourage their students in getting academic materials from the
networking sites.
Policy makers – There are agencies
that formulate an academic design base on students’ level of learning.
Therefore, they should also find out the possible solution in minimizing the
visit of social networking sites by the students which militate their academic
performance. Most of their searching through networking it has no connection
with their academic activities.
In
this regard the policy makers should find the significance way of reducing this
attitude which lead to negative effect of students’ academic performance not
only in Nassarawa Zonal Education Area but all part of Kano State and even the
Nationwide in general.
Because
by leaving this situation, students always getting low academic performance
which led to their backwardness in learning in their performance and their
examination scores.
And
also creates laziness, malpractice in the examination and at the end students
lost their effort in academic line due to spending much time and much money in
concentrating on social media sites.
More
to that policy makers should try to inform the ministry of education to create
a way out for the above situation of using social media site that discourage
our students especially in public senior secondary schools of nowadays which
become rampant.
Fellow
researchers should also contribute in writing more research against the use of
social media sites which have effect on academic performance of students
negatively more especially the teenagers (youngers) and also illustrates the
materials or items base on social media sites which causes a lot of harm on
academic lines, for the public senior secondary school students for this reason
it is only through this way, much solutions may come up which will take in to consideration
in reducing it. The researchers can advise the students in writing the reports
and advise their parent, government otherwise ministry of education, school
administrators, parents of the students, policy makers in line with finding
solution to the above problems (on the effect of social media sites for
students’ academic performance). And the researcher should try to write that
students get more deficiency in the examination by having low score in their
performance. The students are not concentrating in their studies, because they
spent all their time on social networking sites they have no time to read their
note books and they are not searching for academic purpose.
In
this regard, follow researchers should play a vital role in writing information
which can enhance to provide possible solution to this problem of social media
visits by the public senior secondary school students.
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