The Role of Hisbah Board in Minimizing Drug Abuse in Kano State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background to the study

     Kano state is predominantly a Muslim state with over 95℅ of Muslims population. In most of the time, the life of the people living in Kano was based on the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah. However due to some western changes that emerged in the society, the life of the people changes to a different direction and this result to spread of drug abuse especially on the life of come youths. Drug abuse in Kano has profound and undesirable effect on schools, politics, and family and community life. It inhabits the prosperous growth and development country. Implications of drug abuse are what resulted to the collapse of family and community life. The Kano state Hisbah Board was established by the state government in 2003 with the institutionalization of formerly local and privately maintained Hisbah security units. Hisbah (Arabic: حسبه Hisbah) is an Islamic doctrine which means "accountability". Hisbah is the divinely sanctioned duty of the ruler (government) to intervene and coercively "enjoin good and forbid wrong" in order to keep everything in order according to Shari'a (Islamic law). Hisbah are also serve as an important solution in controlling and reducing drug abuse. (Samu & Zubaida, 2005). The Hisbah Board, which operate under the jurisdiction of Kano state Shari’a Commission composed of government officials, Nigerian Police Officers, and religious leaders, is highly decentralized with local units supervised by committees composed of officials and citizens in the communities in which they operate.

     The relationship between the Hisbah Board and police has been sometimes acrimonious. The Nigeria Police Force (NPF), to whom the Hisbah must report crimes, frequently refuses to cooperate in enforcement of religious law. On multiple occasions, NPF officers have arrested Hisbah members for trespassing when the latter have attempted to enter private property to enforce Shari'ah. And in 2006 two senior Hisbah officers were detained by Federal police and questioned on suspicion they were seeking foreign funding to train militants. The act of commanding what is proper and forbidding what is improper is the best check and balance measures of immoralities existing in the society. In order to control this, the Shari'ah legal system was implemented in Kano State and this gave rise to the formation of Kano State Hisbah Board, which is a religious institution under the authority of the State that appoints people to carry out the responsibility of enjoying what is right whenever people starts to neglect it and forbidding what is wrong when ever people are doing it. The purpose of this is to safeguard the society from deviance, protect the faith and ensure the welfare of the people in both religious and worldly manners according to the law of Allah (Samu & Zubaida, 2005).

     Although many States in northern Nigeria established Hisbah institution in one way or the other, emphasis is place on Kano State Hisbah Board. The decision to choose Kano State is based on the fact that it has the comprehensible legal framework on Hisbah. Secondly, because most of the other states adopted the elaborate and comprehensive structure of the Kano Hisbah in their various Hisbah institutions. Kano state Hisbah Board was formally inaugurated in July 2003, but from its inception, the Board faces two challenges. The first challenge was lack of total acceptability by some Muslims and many non-Muslims within and outside the state. Particularly, it was regarded by non-Muslims as a group of 'vigilante ‘whose mission is to witch hunt them and by necessity forcing them to accept and follow principles that were not in conformity with their faith; this was tagged 'Islamization of Christians in Kano'. The following laws may be cited as the Penal Code (Amendment) Law of 2004, section 4 sub section 401. Which states that The manufacture, distillation, distribution, disposal, haulage, consumption and possession of all brand of intoxicating liquors, trade spirits and any other intoxicating liquors, trade spirits and any other intoxicating substance is hereby prohibited throughout the state. Also, section 403 (1&2) stated on cultivation of weeds, (1) the cultivation of Indian Hemp popularly known as (we-we) and procurement of any substance that enhances the manufacture, or making of any alcoholic materials in whatever form is hereby prohibited throughout the state. (2) In section 401 and sub-section (1) of this section, intoxicants include pills, herbs or any substance which when inhaled, chewed, sucked, eaten, injected into human body or rubbed on any part of the body can cause intoxication. In section 404, the punishment for the above mentioned offences were stated as: (a) In case of conviction under section 401 (i) with imprisonment which may extend to one year or a fine of N50,000 (fifty thousand Naira) or both and shall also forfeit the material used for any of the purpose in that section. (b) In case of conviction under section 403 (i) with imprisonment which may extend to six months or a fine which may be up to N25,000 (twenty five thousand Naira) or both and the materials used in the commission of the offence shall in addition be destroyed.

The Board has many functions to perform. The functions are set out in the enabling law to include rendering necessary assistance to the police and other security agencies, especially in the areas of prevention, detection and reporting of offences; encouraging Muslims to unite in their quest for justice and equity, enjoining one another to do good and avoid evil; advising against acquiring wealth by interest, hoarding or speculation; reconciliation of civil dispute between willing parties; and assisting in traffic control and emergency relief operations.

     These functions or responsibilities, despite their brevity, are comprehensive enough to accommodate, enforce and protect all rights available under Islamic law, particularly the rights of man. It invariably takes care of what is regarded as civil and political right as well as economic, social and cultural rights as understood under western conception of human right. In pursuit of its functions, the Kano State Government inaugurated 9,000 Hisbah corps members, 900 of whom were women in 2003. The members were drawn from different Local Governments of the state and from the voluntary or independent Hisbah groups in the year 2003. This is done with a view to strengthening and controlling the activities of Hisbah. The Hisbah Board does not have authority to execute arrests and officers are armed only with non-lethal weapons for self-defense, such as batons. Hisbah officers who observe violations of Shari'ah are expected to alert the Nigeria Police Force. Other duties of Hisbah Board include arbitrating the voluntary reconciliation of disputes, verbally chastising violators of Shari'ah and maintaining order at religious celebrations. Hisbah are also trained to assist with disaster response operations.

     Drug abuse is one of the most serious challenges being faced by the contemporary societies. It is a multifaceted phenomenon with combined effects of social, family and psychological factors. It is a behaviour that manifestation depends upon the complex drug-individual-society relationship and which is deeply rooted in the socio-economic-cultural fabric of the society. Drug abuse disorder has been worsened by the emergence of a new paradigm to already existing problem, i.e. formation of a visible link between intravenous drug use to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Aids. Now the formidable task posed before human kind is not only the prevention of drug use alone, but the prevention of HIV infections, use of needles and pricks in the skin by the drug users. The drug problem is therefore a major concern of humanity which has taken as its toll a whole generation, perhaps more, and as one can well expect many more will be its victims. Drug abuse is a social ill that is of public health importance. It is estimated that the average annual retail cost of psychotropic substances in Nigeria is more than USD $15,000, while alcoholic beverages, aside from spirit, generate more than USD $30,000 from sales to a consumer population of about 30 to 35 million people (Samu & Zubaida, 2005). Previous studies have pointed to the alarming incidence of drug abuse among secondary school students as a contributory factor in the ugly confrontation between school administrators and students; parental use of substances has been implicated as a risk factor for drug use by secondary school students.

1.2   Statement of the problem

     Various forms of drug abuse are common in Nigeria including Kano State. This drug abuse have many cases resulted to the erosion of religious, moral and social values and social norms with adverse consequences in the society. Some form of drug abuse common in Kano state are related to; youth and women in houses etc. In an attempt to stamp out drug abuse, a lot of effort, have been made by individuals and organizations. There are many organizations involved in handling drug abuse in Kano State, the Hisbah Board is involved through community based counselling as a strategy for managing drug abuse in the state. It is against this background the study investigates the impact of Hisbah community based counselling of minimizing drug abuse in Kano State.

1.3   Research questions

1. What are the factors responsible for making youths to abuse drug?

2. What are the measures Hisbah Board used in minimizing drug abuse?

3. What are constrains faced by Hisbah while minimizing drug abuse?

1.4   Objective of the study

1. To identify the factors responsible for making youths to abuse drug

2. To know the measures Hisbah Board used in minimizing drug abuse

3. To find out the constrains faced by Hisbah while minimizing drug abuse

1.5   Significance of the study

     The study will be significant in alerting the public through this medium about the importance of Hisbah institution in a society, its contribution as well as functions. The finding of this research would contribute to a better understanding of the present role that Hisbah played in minimizing drug abuse and the setbacks face by the institution. Also, the findings are expected to stimulate and facilitate the discussion about the linkage between the Hisbah Board and other agencies. The government can also play a vital role in prevention programmes by improving border control. The NGOs can also use the research help in combating the problems of drug abuse. The Government's policy-making and co-ordinating bodies can use this study to facilitate and encourage the development of existing approaches and strategies and, in co-operation with non-governmental organizations, to make drug-abuse prevention programmes more viable and relevant. This co-operation strengthened agency relationships, encouraged resource-sharing and generate a more balanced approach towards programme planning and implementation. The various government services, in co-operation with non-governmental organizations, have adopted the models and strategies that are action-oriented activities, primarily intended to promote positive values, attitudes, self-development, creative productivity and skills of young people.

     Parents can also use this work to support the prevention programme. There are many ways parents can help in preventing drug abuse in the society such as setting a positive example for the younger ones, by asking an open-ended questions to their children concerning their outdoor activities, by also getting involved in their children’s daily lives, and lastly by talking to their children about drug and their implications as early as they can.

     The role of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) is to prevent illicit trafficking of narcotic drugs, enforcing drug laws, working beyond borders to stifle drug activities, tracing and seizing financial proceed drug related activities, eradicating narcotic plants and substances etc. There for this research will assist the agency to see and appreciate the effort of Hisbah Board in minimizing drug abuse. It is believed that the availability and reliability of information, the study could enable decision makers, government, donor organizations and other stakeholders to support efforts to increase the operation of Hisbah. It is also a benefit to students or any interested organization, individual, or research institution to further conduct research in the area pertaining this study. The research will serve as a useful material to other researchers as their source of reference. The research could also be useful to management of Kano State Hisbah Board there by reflecting its contribution in to reducing immorality and criminal acts caused by drug abuse in Kano state.

1.6   Scope and delimitation

           The research will cover the role of Hisbah towards control of drug abuse in Kano state from 2015-2017. Hisbah is engaged in many activities geared towards the transformation of the society; these activities include among others, tackling human trafficking and drug abuse, the sale of alcoholic beverages and fraud, preaching against the hoarding of essential commodities, etc. This study however, is only concern with the community bsed counselling activities on drug abuse of the Hisbah. Although Kano state is comprised of 44 local government Areas. Time and resource constraints may not allow for the expansion of the study to cover all local government areas at the same time. It is expected however, that findings of the study would be generalized to cover other Local Government Areas. The people of Kano state share the same socio-cultural background and are almost of the same religion, so the finding of the study from some selected Local Government Areas can be generalized.

1.7   Operational definitions of terms

Hisbah: Which is an Arabic word meaning an act performed for the good of the society, is an Islamic religious concept that calls for "enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong on every Muslim".

Drug abuse: The act of taking liquor or any intoxicant substance that would affect the mind of a person or upset the system of the body.

Shari'ah: The rules of conduct and ethics governing all activities in Islam that derived from Qur'an and Sunnah prescribed in the form of do and do not.

Minimizing: Means the power to direct, influence or limits something. It also means to limiting or regulating something.

Social vices: Any misbehavior or unethical attitude which society considered as negative and is violating the norms of the society and culture.

Jurisdiction: The power, right or authority to interpret and apply the law. The official power to make legal decisions and judgments.

Community: Community in the context of this study denotes an area where people live, work and interact in close relationship.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

The return to democratic politics in 1999 saw the declaration of full Sharia law in 12 Muslim majority states in Northern Nigeria. To give effect to this declaration, the states created many institutions, such as the Sharia Commission, the Zakat Commission, and the Hisbah Board, a group expected to promote Islamic virtue, whilst discouraging vice. The creation of Hisbah in many states immediately raised fears of religious zealotry, if not intolerance, and the repression of non-conformists, Muslim and non-Muslim, alike. These fears are reflected in descriptions of the Hisbah variously as ‘Islamic police’, ‘morality police’, and even ‘state police’, a reference to the contentious issue of policing powers, currently vested solely in the Federal Government of Nigeria (Nasir 2004). In general, the Hisbah has had a very bad press due to misunderstanding. After about 15 years of Sharia implementation, many studies investigate the true situation regarding this institution. What do the Hisbah organizations represent? What social and religious forces are active within them? What has happened to the hopes for religious consciousness and social reorientation that came in the wake of Sharia declaration? How far have the institutions gone in meeting the high hopes surrounding their establishment? What challenges have they faced?

The Kano State Hisbah Corps was established by the State Government in 2003 with the institutionalization of formerly local and privately maintained Hisbah security units. Hisbah, which is an Arabic word meaning an act performed for the good of the society, is an Islamic religious concept that calls for enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong on every Muslim (Nasir 2004). The Hisbah Corps, which operates under the jurisdiction of a Hisbah Board composed of government officials, secular police officers, and religious leaders, is highly decentralized with local units supervised by committees composed of officials and citizens in the communities in which they operate. The relationship between the Hisbah Corps and civil police has been sometimes acrimonious. The Nigeria Police Force (NPF), to whom the Hisbah must report crimes, frequently refuse to cooperate in enforcement of religious law. On multiple occasions, NPF officers have arrested Hisbah members for trespassing when the latter have attempted to enter private property to enforce Sharia. In 2006, two senior Hisbah officers were detained by Federal Police and questioned on suspicion they were seeking foreign funding to train militants. As of 2010 there were approximately 9,000 male and female officers of the Kano State Hisbah Corps. The Hisbah Corps does not have authority to execute arrests and officers are armed only with non-lethal weapons for self-defense, such as batons. Hisbah officers who observe violations of Sharia are expected to alert the Nigeria Police Force. Other duties of the Hisbah Corps include arbitrating the voluntary reconciliation of disputes, verbally chastising violators of Sharia, and maintaining order at religious celebrations. Hisbah are also trained to assist with disaster response operations.

2.2 Conceptual Frame Work

2.2.1 The concept of Hisbah  

Hisbah is an Islamic doctrine which means "accountability". Hisbah is the divinely-sanctioned duty of the ruler (government) to intervene and coercively "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" in order to keep everything in order according to sharia (Islamic law). The doctrine is based on an expression from the Quran. Clear procedures are required to be followed in order to enact punishment under sharia, however Al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya suggests that it is the sacred duty of all Muslims, not just rulers. There is a growing literature on the Hisbah in Nigeria. (Barkindo, 2011). He seeks to show the foundations of Hisbah within long-established Islamic thought and practice and the applicability of these religious principles to contemporary Nigeria. On the other hand, Dukawa (2009) concentrates on the administrative problems of organizing the various Hisbah bodies formed after 1999, and the difficulties inherent in their interface with extant bureaucracies of the state governments. On the other hand, Adamu (2008) explores the gender dimension of Hisbah, noting its contradictory tendencies. She highlighted the tendency of Hisbah to give women’s issues a higher profile within society, while at the same time restricting their mobility and their access to the public sphere. Garba and Ostien (2006) concentrate on the theological/legal foundations of Hisbah, noting some of its consequences for the operation of the courts and the realization of justice. In its contribution, Human Rights Watch (2004) released a report alleging widespread human rights abuses by Hisbah groups - summary and extra-judicial arrests and floggings; stopping vehicles carrying men and women and forcing the women to disembark; disrupting conversations between men and women in public places on the grounds of alleged immorality; the seizure and destruction of alcoholic drinks and the causing of damage to the vehicles transporting them; and the violation of the rights of people to privacy. This study seeks to build on the insights of these previous studies.

Hisbah is often presented as a state-created organization. In reality, most Hisbah organizations start life as volunteer organizations formed by like-minded Muslim individuals. This is because in Islamic thought, Hisbah can be both the activity of doing ‘good’ by individuals (Ihtisab) as commanded by Allah, and secondly, it can be the institution that makes possible these activities (Wilayatul Hisbah). In virtually all Sharia implementing states, the activity by volunteers preceded the interventions by the states to establish the institutions to guide the activities of the volunteers (Garba 2004).

The importance of volunteers in the establishment of Hisbah has created the impression that Hisbah is just another vigilante organization. However, there is a big difference between Hisbah and vigilantism, even if both share some voluntarist impulses. Hisbah is governed by many religious rules, injunctions, and duties which differentiate it clearly from vigilantism which is solely concerned with the provision of security. Hisbah is different from vigilante groups. Despite the monochromic media presentation of all Hisbah organizations as some form of morality police’, the Hisbah in each state is unique and distinctive. No two Hisbah organizations are the same. What determines the characteristics of the Hisbah in each state are: (a) the strength of Islamic institutions and individuals within society who often initiate the formation of Hisbah; (b) the sectarian and theological cohesion of the Islamic clerics associated with the volunteers; (c) the relationship of those forming the Hisbah with pre-existing centres of local power like the Emirate Councils and Islamic civil society organizations; (d) the ability of the volunteer Hisbah organization to align its interests with those of important state government institutions like the legislature and the executive; (e) and finally, the ability of Hisbah to establish functioning relationships with the Nigerian Police. In virtually each of these attributes, all the Hisbah groups are different from each other (Garba 2004).

The forces acting from above the Hisbah volunteers state government institutions, emirate councils, council of ulama can vary very widely, as can the input coming from below the Hisbah organization from within society – volunteers, clerics, and financial supporters. These variations mean that no two Hisbah organizations are the same. The multiplicity of institutional forms, formation processes, and power dynamics behind each state’s Hisbah suggests that the institutions should be understood as individual, complex organizations, rather than sweeping them all under the undifferentiated banner of the ‘Islamic police’.

Institutionally, at one extreme are the Hisbah in Kano and Zamfara states, with a legally sanctioned board or commission with state-wide powers, and employing thousands of people paid for by the state government. At the other extreme are the Hisbah in Borno (existing only on paper) and Gombe (completely formed by volunteers, lacks any supporting legislation, has no state funding, and the volunteers sometimes have to contribute financially to the running of the organization). In between these two extremes are the states like Bauchi, where Hisbah is just a department under the Sharia Commission and is effectively organized at the Emirate level instead of the state level, and the Hisbah in Kaduna and Katsina which are completely private run, very similar to the Gombe model. The powers and resources enjoyed by these various Hisbah formations vary, as does their ability to interface with their state’s extant political and administrative infrastructure (Garba 2004).

Similar variations can be found in the relationship of the various Hisbah organizations to Islam, despite the appellation of ‘Islamic police’. Only the Zamfara Hisbah law specifically connects the definition of Hisbah to Sharia implementation, with about 80% of its functions directly connected to Sharia implementation. In the Jigawa law, only five out of eight items in the functions of the Committee are directly connected to Sharia implementation, while in the Kano law, no section directly talks of Sharia implementation. Though all Hisbah groups are infused with Islamic values, the extent to which they are ‘Islamic’ varies greatly (Garba 2004).

In all cases, these Hisbah groups perform vital ‘social services’ which the state should ordinarily be expected to render to its citizens, regardless of religion. These functions include dispute resolution, marriage counselling, match-making for widows and single women, controlling the use of illegal drugs, traffic control, helping the needy, promoting science competitions, running refresher courses for pre-degree science students, conducting science exhibitions, and organizing workshops on drug addiction. These social services reach segments of the population long neglected by state institutions. Hisbah groups also carry out specifically ‘Islamic’ evangelical functions such as sermons, conversion of people to Islam, rehabilitation of Mosques, protection of people at religious functions, and First Aid services during festivals and ceremonies.

However, Hisbah also performs controversial ‘morality duties’ such as preventing the mixing of the sexes by forcing women out of the public transport system; enforcing a dress code, especially on women in educational institutions; preventing the performance of music and films; seizing and destroying alcoholic drinks, especially on the federal highway; and putting pressure on ‘deviant’ youth, prostitutes, homosexuals, and lesbians. These ‘moral’ campaigns have led to a hostile backlash against Hisbah from artistes, women’s groups, youth, and residents in largely Christian neighborhoods. It is note that in Saudi Arabia, a similar backlash forced the regime to restrict the powers of Hisbah, while in Aceh, court cases have been initiated against erring Hisbah members. In Nigeria, many Hisbah organizations have monitoring, disciplinary, and training departments. The evangelical activities, especially when conducted with little regard for the religious sensibilities of non-Muslims, has led to anxiety within the Christian communities of the Sharia implementing states. There was tension between the religious ethos of Hisbah and the administrative ethos of the state institutions Hisbah has to relate to. Increasingly, this is leading to the bureaucratization of Hisbah and the diminution of its religious zeal (Kazaure 2003).

2.3. Functions of Hisbah

Some of the Social Service functions of Hisbah in Kano State include: dispute resolution; marriage counselling; match-making; drug control; traffic control; helping the needy; and running refresher courses for pre-degree science students. As such Hisbah is regarded as social welfare institutions, not just religious ones.

2.4 Policy Recommendation and Activities of Hisbah

The Hisbah Law of 2003 established the Kano State Hisbah Board. The Board started operation on the 7^th November, 2003 and was composed of:

1.      A representative of the State Shari’ah Commission;

2.      A representative of State Zakkah and Hubusi Commission;

3.      A representative of the State Emirate Council;

4.      A representative of State Civil Defense Corps;

5.      a representative of Ministry of Justice;

6.      The State Hisbah Commander;

7.      A representative of Nigerian Police Force

8.      A representative of the office of the Secretary to the State Government; and

9.      Four other members who are part-time members.

Each of the 44 local governments in the state was recommended to establish an advisory and management Hisbah committees. The advisory committee should consist of fifteen members with the district head as chairman while members include imam, Islamic scholars, and representatives of the security service, the police and four people of proven integrity. The local government Hisbah management committee included the commander who is also in charge of security, the head of Daawa and head of administration and finance. All villages in the 44 local government areas also require the establishment of a Hisbah committee. According to the Shari’a law which Hisbah implements, any person convicted for prostitution is liable to a term of imprisonment for one year or a fine of N10,000.00 or both. Hisbah Board is empowered to discourage, or report anybody found, manufacturing, distilling, distributing, disposing, consuming and possessing of all brands of intoxicating substances prohibited in Kano State. Prostitution and homosexuality are punishable with one year imprisonment or a fine of N 10,000.00 or both. Between 1999 and 2003, there were 250 Hisbah Corps (Kazaure 2003).

In 2003, the Board was given power to recruit 1,000 corps out of which 700 corps: 600 males and 100 females were recruited at the state level. For a period of one month, 251 Hisbah Corps received intensive training to enable them to work effectively and according to the law establishing the Board. Hisbah made efforts towards curbing anti-Islamic behaviors such as alcoholic consumption, pornography, drug abuse, gambling and prostitution, which aided the upsurge of crime in Kano metropolis. In order to forestall crime and to ensure compliance with the Shari’a legal code and Social Re-orientation Programme, forty-eight viewing centres were closed down by the Hisbah Committee of Dala Local Government Area in connection with criminal activities and pornography in November, 2004. In one of the Viewing Centres in Kano, both males and females were arrested and arraigned before court, which reprimanded them at Kurnawa Central Prison, Kano. Shari’a legal code banned the sale and consumption of alcohol and prostitution in Kano. The Hisbah Board has compliment law enforcement agents in the crackdown of criminal gangs that engage in rape, burglary, sales and consumption of hard drugs and sexual assaults.

In August 2003, the Kano State Sharia Court convicted Hamisu Sule of rape. He was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment or payment of N15,000.00 since his crime was a breach of section 260 of the Sharia Act. In October 2003, a Shari’a court in Kano sentenced a prostitute, who dumped her infant baby in a well to 720 days imprisonment. In November 2004, the Kano State Sharia Court convicted Ghali Sadiq Yakasai of breaking, entering and theft. He was sentenced to amputation of right hand since his crime was a violation of section 134 of the Kano State 2000 Islamic Penal Code. By April 2005, sixteen cases of prostitution were prosecuted before a Kano law court. 19 Fifty corps exercise surveillance at Audu Bako Secretariat that served as the meeting place for criminals at night. Hisbah carry out night patrols along city streets. A beauty contest was aborted at the Bayero University Kano due to its un-Islamic nature and to avoid the violence caused by a similar event in Kaduna in 2002 and at the University of Maiduguri in 2003. In order to implement the prohibition of alcohol in Kano State, truckloads of liquor were intercepted along Kano-Zaria highway and kept in the custody of the Hisbah. Hisbah corps offers counseling to women on marriage issues and to youths on the dangers of drug abuse and gambling (Kzaure 2003).

The establishment of Hisbah-religious vigilante was part of government’s effort to implement Sharia law and a response to curb the pervasive insecurity and rapidly growing social anomie among youths. In a broader political vision, the enforcement of Sharia law was perceived as a return to Islamic values (divinely ordained laws) to foster societal re-orientation and redress moral decadence in the society. Its introduction, however, poses a paradox. Proponents of the Sharia law argued that the inauguration of Hisbah denotes democracy at work that would drive social transformation, economic ethics, and redistributive justice and reduce crime. It has further raised the fundamental concern about the intricacies of security and redefines crime and criminality in metropolitan Kano. There are apprehensions that Hisbah may worsen the precarious security situation and the tenuous peace in Kano. It also raised the question of who protects what and what constitute crime? In this context, growing specter of uncertainty becomes imminent in Sabongari where trade in alcoholic and prostitution thrive. There are incipient agitations that the introduction of Hisbah to enforce Sharia law would reduce tolerance for trading activities, which contradict the tenets of Islam. In this way, collective security remains elusive in Kano metropolis (Tahir 2004).

In its contemporary history, Kano has witnessed both intra and inter-religious violence as exemplified by the (Maitatsine 1980) and (Reinhard 1991). It has been alleged that Hisbah could stoke religious fervour and intolerance. This has implications on policing that can ensure the processes of crime control without sliding into sectarian intolerance and violence. Therefore, the litmus test for Hisbah in the implementation of Sharia law would be how it could reconcile the social diversity in a multicultural society such as Kano to ensure security and social harmony. Following the reticence of the police to enforce the Shari’a legal regime re-introduced in many parts of northern and central Nigeria from 1999, Hisbah-muhtasif, religious vigilante (derived from the Quran and Hadith which encourage all Muslims to “enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong”) was set up for the proper implementation of Shari’a (Baker, 2004: 175). Hisbah is integral to the Islamic socio-economic scheme. Its functions consists of, Maintaining public law and order and supervising and supervising the behaviour of the buyers and sellers in the market with a view to ensure right conduct an protect people from dishonesty and malpractices. The purpose was to regulate public life in such a way that a high degree of public morality is attained and the society is protected from bad workmanship, fraud, extortion, exploitation and charlatanism (Ahmad, 1983:7).

According to the Supreme Council for Shari’a in Nigeria, The Hisbah groups are an indispensable vehicle for the proper implementation of Shari’a as its indomitable vanguard. The Hisbah groups already established are meant to complement the police in their statutory duties and are not its rivals. But this can only be achieved if the mentality and orientation of the police force is refocused to one of service away from extortion and tyranny... we are fully aware of our fundamental constitutional rights in a free democratic society to pursue our activities as Muslims in the attainment of our rights as free citizens of this country (Baker, 2003).

2.5 Hisbah and its achievement in Kano State

The Hisbah corps of Kano Municipal Local Government achieved the followings:

1.      Settlement of (marital and civil) disputes of about 200 people between 2003 and 2004;

2.      Settlement of 10 inheritance cases;

3.      Assisted refugees of Yelwa/Shendam and Kano crises;

4.      Assisted pilgrims to Mecca by providing logistic advice.

5.      Assisted in taking young women to their permanent who absconded from parents and marital homes;

6.      In 2003, Beauty contest organised by the Bayero University Kano students was stopped;

7.      Garaya/goge (traditional music) and its related activities (traditional magic, entertainment by prostitutes and homosexuals) were stopped;

8.      Tiga dam picnic which often involve nudity, betting and car racing among youths was stopped;

9.      Conducted operation in conjunction with National Drug Law and Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) at Gadar Tamburawa and many drug dealers and drug addicts were arrested and handed over to the Police and NDLEA for further investigation and prosecutions; and

10.  About 600 cartons of beer (alcohol) were seized. On 3^rd July, 2005, the operation of Hisbah was further strengthened with the massive recruitment 9,000 trained guards which includes 900 women. Each of the Kano’s 484 wards has 20 Hisbah corps. Hisbah is on the prowl on major roads assisting traffic wardens.

Hisbah is funded by the state and local governments; they receive donations from individuals, organisations, and generate income from subscription fees and sales of publications. The Kano State government provided thirteen vehicles for the Hisbah corps and constructed the headquarters of Hisbah Board that served as office accommodation. As a result of the massive recruitment, Hisbah is estimated to cost the state government N54 million per month. The inauguration of Hisbah was premised on the fact that despite the soaring rate of crimes, Kano is under-policed and state police is outlawed by the constitution. The state government reviewed the laws affecting the operation of the Sharia law, which prohibit the sale, and consumption of alcohol, prostitution and road traffic regulation. It further revoked and proscribed the issuance of certificate of occupancy to any plot owner who plans to build accommodation for prostitution. All liquor licenses in the state were revoked.

2.6 Concept of Drug Abuse:

Most of the world’s development strategies largely depend on the youth. This societal segment is believed to assist in producing sustained economy, social justice and stable democracy of a nation. It is therefore very important if the society could produce a qualitative youth to make these a reality. Majority of the youth interviewed were at their tender ages of inducing their peers, involve in political thuggery that calls for rivalry, killings, injuries, opposition clashes etc.

Sullivan and Thompson (1994) refer to drug abuse as the continued use of psychoactive substances at a level that violates approved social practices. Typically, use of a substance meets social disapproval when it has negative consequences for people’s health, endangers their relationships with other people or is threatening to others in society. Eventhough people believed that, the substance with these consequences can produce social disapproval; drugs are now widely abused especially across the developed world. A recent survey in UK of 1996 reported in Watt (1997) found that over 5 million people used cannabis, 1 million amphetamines, 900,000 LSD and over 500,000 ecstasies1. In Kano Metropolis, people socially disregard the abuse of drugs for it threatens people’s social relationship and security as it relates to politics in the state. Theonye (2004) defined drug abuse principally as the application of drugs for purposes other than of which they are produced. This meaning indicates clearly how drugs like Benylin, Codeine, Valium 5/10 and Roche that are meant to cure cough, put to sleep or common headache and pain are used excessively to produce result different from the stated. This practice appears to be a common social problem amidst youth in urban setting similar to that of Kano Metropolis. Lauer (1992) refers to drug abuse as the improper use of drugs to the degree that the consequences are defined as detrimental to the user or to the society due to behavior that deviates from accepted norms. Radda (2005) believed that, drug abuse is the excessive and persistent use usually by self-administration, of any drug without due regard for accepted practice. The vast arrays of drugs are agents that act on the central nervous system to engender significant effects on mood, social feelings and behaviour. Therefore, the general definition of drug abuse encompasses the habitual use of drugs by laymen like laxatives, pain relievers and vitamins without proper medical recommendations.

2.6.1 Causes of Drug Abuse among the Youths

Many factors are responsible for drug abuse in the world today. Researches were conducted to indicate how these factors influence drug abuse in the society. In a study conducted in Dawanau rehabilitation center by Abdullahi (1991) cited in Abdullahi (2003), 77% of the respondents said they either abuse drug to work hard so that they can become materially successful or to forget about their problems. To confirm this further, it was indicated in another work by the same author in Kano Metropolis (2003) that a commercial motor cyclist stated: “If I take Gadagi (a form of drugs), I feel strong and fearless, I find it much easier to maneuver any traffic congestion in order to quickly drop my passenger and be paid within a short time and wait for another passenger” (Abdullahi, 2003:15) Garba (2005) found that some people abuse different drugs for different reasons. These vary in terms of drug, person or occasion, although some people may have more than one reason for abuse. These reasons include curiosity towards achieving a particular goal such as economic, political or otherwise. Also, search for pleasure, social pressure (which may come within or outside one’s social group such as family). One may even continue to abuse drugs for tension relief or escape. Other factors that influence the abuse of drugs among the community youth include mass media communication that encompasses radio, television, magazines and newspapers.

A study on drug abuse by Abdullahi and Haruna (1991) in Abdullahi (2003) showed that inmates at Dawanau Rehabilitation Centre Kano learned the habit of drug abuse from friends, workmates and other associates. In their study on drug abuse among students of universities of Nairobi, Muliro and Kisumu Day Secondary School, Ngesul, Ndiku and Masese (2008), found that the interest and expectation of the peer groups have an important bearing on whether or not a person will try dependence producing drugs. A friend or peer group is likely to be the source of information for drug users about the availability of drugs and their allegeable effects. Some of the reasons that are responsible for drugs use and abuse especially among the youth include, peer influence, search for pleasure, curiosity toward success in a modern competitive world, stress and anxiety, party politics and family disintegration effects (Odiase, 1980). Other socio-economic factors are profit maximization by those who sell the drugs, rapid urbanization process, bribery and corruption, general indiscipline in the society, ineffective social control measures by the community members and authorities concerned, etc (Olatunde, 1979). Students take drugs to prevent themselves from sleeping in the night to read very hard and pass examinations with flying colours. Trucks and bus drivers, conductors, tailors, cart- pushers, head –loaders (‘Yandako) etc. consume and become addicted to drugs to enable them work hard and become materially successful (Abdullahi, 2003).

In his comparative study of the political economy of crime in United States and Nigeria, Chambliss in Taylor, Walton and Young (1975) revealed that, by 1967, Seattle and Las Vegas in United States and Ibadan and Lagos in Nigeria all had larger populations. They also possess common social problems. Crimes such as prostitution, gambling, alcohol and drugs available for abuse gain ready markets in these cities. The findings also indicate that drug distribution which flourish in the lower- class center of the cities continue to exist. This is being done with the compliance, encouragement and co-operation of the major political and law enforcement officials in the cities. According to these findings, there was in fact a common symbiotic relationship between the law enforcement political organization of these four cities and a group of local (as distinct from national) men who control the distribution of vices. Hausas, who were immigrants in Ibadan, Nigeria, were believed to have professional criminals (Abdullahi, 2003).

The findings of Akindele (1974) and Asuni (1974) showed that more recent clinical observations indicated that approximately 70% of cases of toxic psychosis as a result of drug abuse are from wealthy homes. By way of evaluation, Borodo (2005) observed that, although globally varied factors are responsible for the prevalence of substance/drug abuse, peculiar to our Nigerian society (Kano Metropolis in particular) include; reduced community participation, less family and parental cohesion and care, increasing number of unemployed youth with inadequate Islamic and Western education, abundance of illicit substances/drugs in the society due to laxity of relevant authorities in checking their circulations, increasing poverty in the society etc.

2.6.2 Consequences of Drug Abuse

Garba (2005) believes that drugs affect all sectors of society in all countries. In particular, drug abuse affects the freedom and development of young people, the world’s most valuable asset. Joseph (1980) observed that, young people have tended to use drugs more than adults and with increasing frequency. As youth deepen into drug abuse, their productive human potentials are threatened. This might spread to the general society producing wider social, cultural, political and economic damages. Borodo (2005) observed that consequences of drug abuse in our society today particularly in Kano Metropolis, consist of; increasing number of youth becoming lunatics in the streets with increasing burden on government as well as increased cases of crimes and other societal ills.

Report shows that over 82,000Kg of Indian hemp was impounded by the agency between January and August this year, (NDLEA, 2008). Drug abuse serves as one of the avenues through which people maneuver their ways to achieve economic, educational and even political successes. Many acts of violence, physical assaults, rape or murder are generally linked to substance abuse.

Substance abuse is the worst of plagues. It knows no season and no boundaries. No mosquito will be identified, no microbe isolated, no vaccine invented to end its reign. It is a pestilence with all the classic trappings of social disruption, suffering and death-and one terrible defining difference, we invite it to kill, and maim and diminish us. This text provides a thorough understanding of the parameters of drug abuse, broadly defined. Conceptual issues regarding definitions of drug use, misuse, abuse, and dependence are discussed in full. In addition, this text serves as a comprehensive source of information on the etiology, prevention, and cessation of drug abuse. It organizes etiologic, prevention, and cessation information in to neurobiological, cognitive, micro social, and macro social/physical environmental units. For example, modification of neurobiological, cognitive, social, and larger socio environmental and physical environmental influences are addressed in separate chapters. This text addresses a variety of theoretical bases currently applied to the development of prevention and cessation programs, specific program content from empirically based model programs, and program processes and modalities Borodo (2005).

It is hoped that this text will facilitate advancement in the arena of research on drug problems. He has authored more than300 publications. His projects include Towards No Tobacco Use, Towards No Drug Abuse, and Project EX, which are considered model programs at numerous agencies (e.g. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Cancer Institute, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, Colorado and Maryland Blueprints, Health Canada, U.S. Department of Education, and various state departments of education). He received the honor of Research Laureate for the American Academy of Health Behavior in 2005 and is currently president of the academy (2007–2008). Susan L. Ames received her Ph.D. in preventive medicine with a focus on health behavior research from the University of Southern California in 2001. She completed her doctoral training with support from a National Cancer Institute Cancer Control and Epidemiology Research Training Grant. Dr. Ames is an assistant professor with the Transdisciplinary Drug Abuse Prevention Research Center at the Institute for Prevention Research, Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, and University of Southern California. She has been co-investigator on several substance abuse prevention projects funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Her research emphasis is on the mediation of implicit processes and competing social, personality, and cultural constructs in the etiology and prevention of risk behaviors (e.g., drug use and HIV-risk behavior) among at risk you than adults. Her research focuses on new prevention and harm reduction strategies for addictive behaviors and new assessments and prediction models of substance use and risky sexual behavior. Other major interests include neurobiological processes and brain structures as associated with implicit processes and addictive behaviors. Dr. Ames has published in a variety of American Psychological Association journals and journals that emphasize the addictive process and health behaviors. She worked in substance abuse treatment for nearly a decade. Steven Sussman Susan Lames (2012) Cambridge University.

2.6.3 Types of Drug Abuse

In Nigeria, the most common types of abused drugs according to NAFDAC (2000) as cited by Haladu (2003) are categorized as follows:-

1. Timulants: These are substances that directly act and stimulate the central nervous system.

Users at the initial stage experience pleasant effects such as energy increase. The major source of these comes from caffeine substance.

2. Hallucinogens’: These are drugs that alter the sensory processing unit in the brain. Thus, producing distorted perception, feeling of anxiety and euphoria, sadness and inner joy, they normally come from marijuana, LSD etc.

3. Narcotics: These drugs relive pains, induce sleeping and they are addictive. They are found in heroin, codeine, opium etc.

4. Sedatives: These drugs are among the most widely used and abused. This is largely due to the belief that they relieve stress and anxiety, and some of them induce sleep, ease tension, cause relaxation or help users to forget their problems. They are sourced from valium, alcohol, promotazine, chloroform.

5. Miscellaneous: This is a group of volatile solvents or inhalants that provide euphoria, emotional disinhibition and perpetual distortion of thought to the user. The main sources are glues, spot removers, tube repair, perfumes, chemicals etc.

6. Tranquilizers: They are believed to produce calmness without bringing drowsiness, they are chiefly derived from Librium, Valium etc.

2.6.4 Theories of Drug Abuse

Theories of drug abuse indicate that some people truly depend on certain drugs for their survival due to a number of factors. The major emphasis of the theories is that people have their individual reasons for depending on one type of the drug or the other. Such reasons, according to Eze and Omeje (1999) are explained by the following theories. Personality theory of drug abuse, learning theory of drug abuse, biological theory of drug abuse and socio-cultural theories:

(a) Personality Theories of Drug Abuse: The main emphasis of the theories are that there are certain traits or characteristics in the individuals that abuse drugs. Such personality characteristics, according to Eze and Omeje (1999) are inability to delay gratification, low tolerance for frustration, poor impulse control, high emotional dependence on other people, poor coping ability and low self-esteem. Individuals with these personality characteristics find it difficult to abstain from drug abuse.

(b) Learning Theory of Drug Abuse: It maintains that dependence or abuse of drugs occurs as a result of learning. The learning could be by means of conditioning, instrumental learning or social learning.

(c) Biological Theory of Drug Abuse: The theory maintains that drug abuse is determined by the individual’s biological or genetic factors which make them vulnerable to drug addiction

(d) Socio-cultural Theories of Drug Dependence/Abuse: The theories maintain that abuse is determined by socio-cultural values of the people. For instance, while certain cultures permit the consumption of alcohol and marijuana, other cultures do not. Among the Urhobo, Ijaw, Ibibio, Edo, Igbo, Yoruba and Itesekiri, alcohol i.e. Ogogoro is used in cultural activities. In Northern Nigeria, alcohol is forbidden due to Sharia law.

However, the sharing law does not forbid cigarette consumption and thus nicotine dependence. It should be noted, however that no theory fully explains the etiology of drug abuse.

This is due to individual differences. It then becomes obvious that the disorder (drug abuse) is an acquired one. The acquisition, then is dependent on a host of personal inclinations and environmental factors, a situation explained suggestively by Bandura (1986) social cognitive theory, i.e. the triadic reciprocity involving behavior, environment and the person.

2.6.5 Causes of Drug Abuse

Haladu (2003) gave the following as the main causes of doing abuse

i. Experimental Curiosity: Curiosity to experiment the unknown facts about drugs thus motivates adolescents into drug use. The first experience in drug abuse produces a state of arousal such as happiness and pleasure which in turn motivate them to continue.

ii. Peer Group Influence: Peer pressure plays a major role in influencing many adolescents into drug abuse. This is because peer pressure is a fact of teenage and youth life. As they try to depend less on parents, they show more dependency on their friends. In Nigeria, as other parts of the world, one may not enjoy the company of others unless he conforms to their norms.

iii. Lack of parental supervision: Many parents have no time to supervise their sons and daughters. Some parents have little or no interaction with family members, while others put pressure on their children to pass exams or perform better in their studies. These phenomena initialize and increases drug abuse.

iv. Personality Problems due to socio-Economic Conditions: Adolescents with personality problems arising from social conditions have been found to abuse drugs. The social and economic status of most Nigerians is below average. Poverty is widespread, broken homes and unemployment is on the increase, therefore our youths roam the streets looking for employment or resort to begging. These situations have been aggravated by lack of skills, opportunities for training and re-training and lack of committed action to promote job creation by private and community entrepreneurs. Frustration arising from these problems lead to recourse in drug abuse for temporarily removing the tension and problems arising from it.

v. The Need for Energy to Work for Long Hours: The increasing economic deterioration that leads to poverty and disempowerment of the people has driven many parents to send their children out in search of a means of earning something for contribution to family income.

These children engage in hawking, bus conducting, head loading, scavenging, serving in food canteens etc and are prone to drug taking so as to gain more energy to work for long hours.

vi. Availability of the Drugs: In many countries, drugs have dropped in prices as supplies have increased.

vii. The Need to prevent the Occurrence of Withdrawal symptoms: If a drug is stopped, the user experiences what is termed “withdrawal symptoms”. Pain, anxiety, excessive sweating and shaking characterize such symptoms. The inability of the drug user to tolerate the symptoms motivates him to continue (Ige, 2000).

2.6.6 Signs and Symptoms of Drug Abuse

According to Adolescents Health Information Project AHIP (2001) the following are signs and symptoms of drug abuse. They are:

a. Signs of Drug Used and Drug Paraphernalia

i. Possession of drug related paraphernalia such as pipes, rolling paper, small decongestant

ii. Possession of drugs, peculiar plants or bolts, seeds of leaves in ashtrays or clothing pockets.

iii. Odour of drugs, smell of incense or other cover up scents.

b. Identification with Drug Culture

i. Drug related magazines, slogans on clothing

ii. Hostility in discussing drugs

c. Signs of Physical Deterioration

i. Memory lapses, short attention span, difficulty in concentration.

ii. Poor physical coordination, slurred or incoherent speech; unhealthy appearance, indifference to hygiene and grooming

iii. Bloodshot eyes, dilated pupils.

d. Changes in Behaviour

i. Distinct downward performance in school place of work.

ii. Increased absenteeism or tardiness.

iii. Chronic dishonesty, lying; cheating and stealing.

iv. Trouble with the police and other law enforcement agencies

v. Change of friends, evasiveness in talking about new ones.

vi. Increasing and inappropriate anger, hostility, irritability, sectraveness etc.

vii. Reduce motivation, energy, self-discipline, self-esteem etc.

2.7 The Effects of Drug Abuse

Alcohol іѕ a ѕubѕtаnсе thаt has been consumed by mаn since mаnу centuries ago іn order tо gеt ѕресіаl bodily ѕеnѕаtіоn аnd іѕ deeply еmbеddеd in diverse сulturеѕ of thе wоrld. It іѕ used in almost аll раrtѕ оf thе wоrld yet many реорlе аrе nоt even aware thаt іt іѕ a drug. Many Nigerians do not regard аlсоhоl аѕ a vеrу роtеnt drug duе to thе fact that іt іѕ rеаdіlу available аnd іtѕ use іѕ socially accepted by thе ѕосіеtу. In ѕоmе societies оthеr than Nіgеrіа today, drinking bеhаvіоur is соnѕіdеrеd іmроrtаnt fоr the whole ѕосіаl оrdеr аnd ѕо drinking is defined and limited in accordance wіth fundamental motifs оf the сulturе. In Nіgеrіа аlсоhоl hаѕ contributed іmmеnѕеlу tо various road ассіdеntѕ аnd сrіmеѕ. Mаnу уеаrѕ аgо, alcohol used to bе thе рrеѕеrvе оf аdult mаlеѕ, but rесеnt studies ѕhоw thаt аlсоhоl іѕ nоw аbuѕеd by thе уоung ones аnd also the fеmаlеѕ. Alсоhоl іѕ іn thе соmроѕіtіоn of many bеvеrаgеѕ and varies grеаtlу іn thеіr nаturе аnd ѕtrеngth. Sоmе hаvе frоm .3-20% while ѕоmе others соntаіn up tо 50% аlсоhоl. Whеn this аlсоhоl іѕ tаkеn in еxсеѕѕ, the following effects соuld bе еxреrіеnсеd in the body: (Ige, 2000).

        i.            It deadens the nеrvоuѕ system.

      ii.            It іnсrеаѕеs thе heart-beat.

    iii.            It causes thе blооd vеѕѕеlѕ tо dilate.

    iv.            It саuѕеѕ bad dіgеѕtіоn nоtаblу оf vіtаmіn B еѕресіаllу whеn taken on empty stomach. It interferes wіth thе роwеr оf judgmеnt аnd роіѕоnѕ thе higher brаіn аnd nеrvе сеntrе еtс. Apart frоm alcohol and tobacco, оthеr ѕubѕtаnсеѕ with several арреllаtіоnѕ whісh are sources оf grеаt concern tо the gоvеrnmеnt аrе the nаrсоtісѕ. Thеѕе аrе thе hаrd drugѕ аnd are thе mоѕt dаngеrоuѕ list on to іnсludе codeine, hеrоіn еtс. Aѕ a mаttеr оf fасt, thеѕе twо are common оnеѕ аvаіlаblе іn Nіgеrіа. Othеrѕ are mоrрhіnе and paregoric methadone. Thеѕе drugѕ reduce рhуѕісаl аnd рѕусhоlоgісаl ѕеnѕіtіvіtу, resulting іn a lоѕѕ of соntасt with rеаlіtу, ѕеnѕе оf еuрhоrіа, rеduсеѕ fеаr, tension and аnxіеtу. It аlѕо rеduсеѕ рhуѕісаl асtіvіtіеѕ of the uѕеr аnd саuѕеѕ drowsiness, constipation, nаuѕеа and vоmіtіng in some іndіvіduаlѕ. Hіgh dоѕеѕ ѕоmеtіmеѕ саuѕе unconsciousness, coma оr dеаth. Thе sedatives аrе nісоtіnе, tranquilizer barbiturates etc. Sedatives reduce tension, аnxіеtу and inhibitions resulting іn a fееlіng оf rеlаxаtіоn аnd drоwѕіnеѕѕ. Ovеr dоѕе of thе drugѕ produces blurrеd ѕреесh, ѕtаggеrіng, ѕluggіѕhnеѕѕ, rеасtіоn, erratic emotionality and untіmеlу ѕlеер. The stimulants іnсludе wеll knоwn сосаіnе, caffeine or codeine, paracetamol еtс. Thеѕе саtеgоrіеѕ of drugs whеn thеу аrе not mеdісаllу uѕеd аѕ anesthetic, are capable оf еlеvаtіng mood, ѕuррrеѕѕеѕ hungеr, dесrеаѕе fаtіguе, саuѕеѕ sensation аnd ѕеnѕоrу hаlluсіnаtіоn.

Mba (2008) identified numerous negative effects of drug abuse on the body chemistry as follows:

1. Alcohol-related problems includes:

a. Physical problems e.g. liver cirrhosis, pancreatic, peptic ulcer, tuberculosis, hypertension, neurological disorder.

b. Mental retardation for the fetus in the womb, growth, deficiency, delayed motor development.

c. Craniofacial abnormalities, limbs abnormalities and cardiac deficits.

d. Psychiatric e.g. pathological drunkenness, suicidal behavior

e. Socially-broken homes, increased crime rate, sexual offences, homicide and sexually transmitted diseases.

2. Tobacco: Causes stimulation of heart and narrowing of blood vessels, producing hypertension, headache, loss of appetite, nausea and delayed growth of the fetus. It also aggravates or causes sinusitis, bronchitis, cancer, strokes, and heart attack.

3. Stimulants: Lethargy, irritability, exaggerated self-confidence, damage nose linings, sleeplessness, and psychiatric complications.

4. Inhalants: Causes anemia, damage kidney and stomach bleeding.

5. Narcotics: Causes poor perception, constipation, cough, suppression, vomiting, drowsiness and sleep, unconsciousness and death.

2.7.1 Incidence of Drug Abuse among Nigerian Adolescents

Students, especially those in secondary school tend to see the drug user as one who is tough, bold and strong. Many youngsters have been known to use drugs at the instance of peers, elders or siblings. Students who usually feel inadequate have been known to use drugs to achieve social acceptance. Esen (1979) stated that Nigerian secondary school adolescents under the influence of Indian hemp shed all inhibitions and produce behavior that is inconsistent with school discipline. He went further to observe that the increasing incidence of drug abuse among secondary school students is a contributory factor in the ugly confrontation between school administration and students. Odejide, (1979); Ogunremi and Rotimi, (1979); Agunlana, (1999); Ubom, (2004); Obiamaka, (2004); Okorodudu and Okorodudu, (2004) in their research work indicated that the problem of drug abuse know no boundaries or social class. It impedes the development of any society as it is a threat to life, health, dignity and prosperity of all individuals. Fayombo and Aremu (2000) in their research on the effect of drug abuse on educational performance of some adolescent drug abusers in Ibadan found that the misuse of marijuana had reached an epidemic level in the present Nigeria society, and that drug abuse could lead to reduce academic achievement or even halt one’s entire academic process. Adesina, (1975); Ekpo, (1981); and Orubu, (1983) in their studies dwelled extensively on reasons students use drugs include success in examination, social acceptance and initiation of peers. Olatunde (1979) states that Nigerian adolescents take drugs such as amphetamines and pro-plus as aid for success in examination. He postulated that those who take drugs as aid for studies toward examinations are those with poor academic records, a history of instability and family/social problems, while others, he commended; use rugs to increase their self-confidence, heighten pleasure, cope with feelings of depression and inadequacy, and to facilitate communication. Idowu (1987) found that students smoke and use drugs at the instance of friends/peers, parents and television/radio advertisements. Oladele, (1989); Okorodudu and Okorodudu (2004); and Enakpoya (2009) in their studies showed that adolescents were very susceptible to the influence of their peers.

Osikoya and Ali (2006) asserted that socially, a drug abuser is always pre-occupied with how to obtain drug of choice and crave for the substance. Kobiowu (2006) study revealed that the academic pursuits of those undergraduates who engages in drug misuse is not undulyjeopardized, and that the abusers do not socialize extraordinarily, contrary to seemingly popular expectation. Studies by Okoh (1978), Oduaran (1979) and Johnson (1979) exhibit a plethora of purposes for which students use drug. The list includes curiousity, boldness, and friends-do-it, enjoyment of social gathering, academic pressure, sound-sleep, sexual-prowess, and performance in sports. Drug abuse is a very serious problem among school adolescents and which has slowly made the average Nigerian student to be maimed, sentenced to a life of delinquency, insanity, street walking and premature death.

2.7.2 Role of Hisbah in minimizing Drug Abuse  

The following counselling strategies followed by Hisbah help reduce drug abuse among adolescents. Establishment of Family Education on Drugs: The family is the nucleus of the social organization. Parents should give their children appropriate education on drug use. They should be encouraged by health authorities to offer family education on drug abuse to their children. They should inform them of the dangers of drug abuse and dependence on their health, society and the nation. Establishment of Counseling Centers for Drug Control: Counselling centers should be established in every community by the government or private individuals. Qualified health counsellor should be employed in helping drug addicts or those dependent on drugs by giving them special advice on how to go about the withdrawal system.

2.8  Empirical Review 

Hisbah activities toward maiming Drug Abuse.

            Police and Hisbah organizations are currently saddled with providing security to urban Kano civilian populace. As the former is being conventional in security management, the later on the other hand is a specialized agency introduced to assist the implementation of Islamic Shari’a which followed the public agitation (Siro, 2017). In the contemporary times, both agencies work tirelessly in a collaborative effort to achieve maximum security which is traditionally unnoticed due to past enjoyed peace. This research aimed at explaining the contributions of these agencies in combatting the current security challenges. In-depth interviews were conducted with five respondents from each of the two organizations making the sample size ten respondents. The qualitative analyses revealed that, tremendous achievements were being realized. Albeit these successes, some major impediments affect the proper functioning of these agencies. These include, inadequate personnel, insufficient funding, lack of working tools, and corruption. On the other hand, external problems aggravating insecurity situation in the area include among other things, unemployment and poverty within the populace. Hence, to re-strengthen security, a lot need to be done. However, this task does not only lie in the hands of relevant authorities, but the entire population as a whole. Some mechanisms in addressing this issue were also suggested in the write up. A study of the causes and effects of drug and substance abuse among students in selected secondary schools in starehe sub county, nairobi county (2016) mondester nyakemwa ongwae the award of Master of education of the university of Nairobi.

Drug and substance abuse has been talked about worldwide and Kenya is part of that globe. Teachers, parents, church officials and other stakeholders have been at the forefront trying to find out the causes and ways of controlling it. Therefore, there is a need to curb this vice. This study aimed at finding out what makes students abuse drugs and the effects that arise out of this practice with reference to Starehe Sub-County, Nairobi. The study also suggested measures that can be taken to control drug and substance abuse. The study was guided by the following objectives; to establish the extent to which parent’s sources of income influence the prevalence of drug and substance abuse; determine how location of schools influence the prevalence of drug and substance abuse; establish the extent to which school administration influences the prevalence of drug and substance abuse; establish how peer pressure influences abuse; investigate how drug abuse among secondary school students determine their academic achievement. The target population was 6 secondary schools. The sample consisted of two hundred and sixtyeight students, six guidance and counselling teachers and six principals. Simple random sampling was used to select the students. Data was collected using questionnaires. The data collected was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software programme and presented using both qualitative and descriptive methods such as frequencies and percentages and presented as tables and figures. It was established that most students are driven into taking drugs by peer pressure. Poor performance is the greatest effect of drug abuse among drug taking students. The researcher recommended that all stakeholders be involved in curriculum review and reform to address drug abuse related issues and guidance and counselling sessions enhanced in changing student behaviour.

Ibrahim (2016) explain that abuse is a global phenomenon found in most countries of the world among youth. Although it covers various age range group, it’s mostly common in youths between18–35 years of age. A total of 100 structured questionnaires were distributed to the respondents, followed by face to face interview to establish a relationship between what is in the questionnaire and responses from the interview. It has been found out that youth of the age range 18–25 years were more in number in terms of drug misuse. Unemployment and low level of education also play a role in drug abuse. Males are more in number than female in drug abuse misuse due cultural and religious reasons. Memory losses, school attendance, difficulty in concentration, poor performance are some of the educational consequences in drug abuse. Parents must keep watchful eyes on the movement of their children and their peers.

In another study by Abdu-Raheem (2013), the study examined the influence of drug abuse on secondary school students in relation to their family background, family cohesion, peer group influence, and students’ academic performance. Descriptive research design of the survey type and an inventory were used for the study. The population comprised all secondary school students in Ekiti and Ondo States, while the sample consisted of 4 60 students that were found to be using drugs in Ekiti and Ondo states. Simple random sampling was used to select one school from each of the 16 local governments in Ekiti and one each from the 30 in Ondo state. Purposive sampling was used to select ten students from each school in the 16 local governments in Ekiti and teneach from the 30 local governments in Ondo states. The instruments used for collection of data were a self-designed questionnaire called Drug Abuse Questionnaire (DAQ) and an inventory for collection of students’ results. The data were analyzed using Pearson Moment Correlation Analysis. The four hypotheses raised were tested at 0.5 level of significance. The study determined that there was significant relationship between family background, peer influence, family cohesion, and drug abuse. In the study, it was also discovered that drug abuse negatively affects students’ academic performance in Ekiti and Ondo States. It is therefore recommended that parents should give their children moral, social, psychological, and financial support to guide them against negative peer and societal influences.

Sambiro (2013) in a study which involved the investigation of the causes, effects and remedy of drug abuse among children with reference to Hananas if Ward is District, Dares Salaam, Tanzania. A case research strategy which because the investigation involved a real life problem which cannot distanced from the main agents and therefore it was important to identify which could fulfill the research objectives or answer the research exhaustively. Methods of data collection were observation, in-depth in distribution of questionnaire. The data obtained were presented by u histograms, and frequency polygons. Data were analyzed and interpret based on the patterns reflected by the statistics. The statistical pa debated and challenges to the current practices and the following ‘every family is vulnerable to drug abuse by children regardless of m lack of adequate time for socialization amongst family members control abuse among children, drug abuse among children can start as early as years of age. It was concluded that drug abuse can be eradicate collaboration between families, community, government and hospitals that it has been recommended that children should go to school roaming around, be involved in sports to avoid idling, be selective in peers and be inspired with parents’ ideals and ethics.

In another investigation conducted in Tanzania by Poss (2016) the article provides definitions of drug and drug abuse. Also it provides sources of drugs in global and local councils. Further discusses the example of drug trafficking in Tanzania. Theoretical issues underlying drug abuse are discussed in detail. The paper indicates that the youth gels involved in drugs due to peer pressure, curiosity, wanting to be different, rioting from the system and also due to escape behavior, i.e., running away from problems. Characteristics of drug abusers are provided. Most drug abusers are said to have glue with them, possess large paper bags, handkerchiefs, and hypodermic syringes. The effects In terms of problems and/or dangers of drug abuse are highlighted as brain damage, behavioral disorders, inability 10 reason, low academic performance, etc. To conclude, the paper offers a summary and outlines recommendations for action against drug abuse. It also recommends that attempts be made through the Ministry of Education and Culture, and the Ministry of Labor and Youth to see 10 It that ways and means of alleviating the drug abuse problems are sought. Parents and the community at large should be involved in anti-drug programmes.

Drug and substance abuse has continued to ruin our youth and subsequently education despite various measures taken to stop it. This study aimed at finding out what makes students abuse drugs and the effects that arise out of this practice. The study employed survey research design and was conducted in secondary schools in Dagoretti Division, Nairobi. Data was collected with the help of questionnaires. Data was organized and prepared for analysis by coding and entry in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software programme. The study established that majority of students’ abuse drugs to feel high and was a result of peer pressure. It was also noted that poor performance is the greatest effect of drug and substance abuse among students. The study recommends heavy punishment of drug abusers as well as guidance and counseling sessions to minimize the vice and make secondary schools drug free (Njeri, 2014).

Samuel (2009) explains that drug abuse among youths in Nigeria has been a problem to the youths and the society in General. The consequences of drug abuse are not only on the individual user but also on his or her offspring, family and the society. This work is expected to create awareness, expose and provide useful Information to people especially to the Nigerian youths on the effects of drug abuse and the challenges for the Nigerian churches towards drug abuse in Nigeria. Chapter one is an introductory chapter. It discusses the usefulness of drug in the life of a living thing and how it is being abused in Nigeria by the youths. The second chapter reviews the works of authors on drug abuse. The third chapter explains much about drug. There are a lot of substance like alcohol, cannabis, heroine etc. and most of them were discussed including their abuses, uses, effects, causes of drug abuse etc. Chapter four discusses the challenges for the Nigerian churches on drug abuse in the Nigerian society. In this chapter, the researcher dwelt on what the church should do to control or stop drug abuse in Nigeria. If the Nigerian youths should stop abusing drugs, they will be useful to themselves, their families and the society in general. In another way Sidiq (2016) conducted a research on drug Addiction Causes and Awareness among people of Pulwama District of Jammu and Kashmir State, India posits that substance use disorder is a major preventable cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Pulwama district of Jammu and Kashmir State is not an exception. The aim of the present study is to know the awareness of drug addiction among people of Pulwama district of Kashmir valley. 400 persons 200 male and 200 female selected at random from different areas of district Pulwama were asked questions regarding the age at which people start to use drug, their drug habits, their reason for drug etc. The results obtained in our study presents a horrifying picture and a threat for the entire society if the menace is not controlled.

Abdu (2017) in a research of drug abuse in urban life of Bangladash find that drugs create many social offences. Consequently, the youth-the future of the nation-are running in to the depth of darkness. This study tries to discover the causes of drug addiction in the urban life of Bangladesh. To conduct this study, analytical research design, social survey method & stratified random sampling have been followed. To measure the causes of drug addiction, the Likert Scaling five rating scale has been applied. Further, for hypotheses testing, antest has been used to test the degree to which two or more groups vary or differ in an experiment. The present findings suggest that the majority (67.67 %) of drug addicts think that drug addiction is high/very high, simultaneously 9.10% medium and 23.23% low/very low due to the influence of frustration, addicted parents and peer group in society. Again, the result of hypotheses testing suggests that a man can become addicted to drugs by the influence of frustration and peer group not influenced by the parental drug addiction. Therefore, these findings may help the policy makers and planners of the government and non-government organizations to take appropriate initiatives to prevent drug addiction in society.

Drug addiction is a complex disease characterized by compulsive and uncontrollable desire to seek and consume the drug. In time, drug-related terminology has undergone many changes, arising from the deepening of the mechanisms of action, but also about the need for a greater precision in the definition. Drug dependence can be assigned not only to pharmacological effects of the drugs of abuse, but also to their interaction with each particular neurological and psychological constitution. The research on the neurobiological mechanisms of addiction processes allows both a better understanding of current pharmacotherapy and the development of new treatment strategies in drug abuse and dependence. In this review we intend to present the current concepts related to drug abuse and dependence (Luiza, 2015)

In the work of Nick (1998) a satisfactory definition of addiction is sought and it is concluded that it is best defined by repeated failures to refrain from drug use despite prior resolutions to do so. This definition is consistent with views of addiction that see decision-making, ambivalence and conflict as central features of the addict's behaviour and experience. On this basis, a three-level framework of required explanation is set out, consisting of (1) the level of neuroadaptation, (2) the level of desire for drugs and (3) the level of 'akrasia'or failures of resolve. The crucial argument is made that explanatory concepts used at the 'lower' levels in this framework can never be held to be sufficient as explanations at higher levels, i.e. the postulation of additional determinants is always required at Levels 2 and 3. In particular, it is a failure to address problems at the highest level in the framework that marks the inadequacy of most existing theories of addiction. The paper concludes by considering the relevance of the ideas presented to the concept of 'compulsive drug use' and concludes that this concept is no longer useful in the explanation of addiction.

This work looks at drug abuse and its socioeconomic effects on youths in Nigeria. Drug abuse is a cancerworm that has eaten deep into the fabric s of our societies, whose effects are cataclysmic as it cuts across every creed, race and social status. No acceptable method has been developed to curb the menace since it has become a subculture that annihilates every human productive endeavours. Changing man is the focal point here as it breeds a change in the family, community, society, and the entire body polity. This is done via a collaborative efforts of the government, non-governmental organizations, community based associations as well as educational institutions, all this against the backdrop that a work on this Issue has overtime suffered negligence.

Dwayne (2004) has evidence from specialized treatment evaluations and large-scale natural studies of treatment effectiveness is organized conceptually into a "treatment model" for summarizing how drug treatment works. Sequential relationships between patient and treatment program attributes, early patient engagement, recovery stages, retention, and favorable outcomes are discussed--along with behavioral, cognitive, and skills training interventions that have been shown to be effective for enhancing specific stages of the patient recovery process. Applications of the treatment model for incorporating science-based innovations into clinical practice for improving early engagement and retention, performance measurements of patient progress, program monitoring and management using aggregated patient records, and organizational functioning and systems change also are addressed.

Shagari (2015) explains that substance abuse is a maladaptive use of a drug, resulting in impairment of functioning or distress, as manifested by a failure to perform adequately at home, school or work.  In Nigeria, a large number of the population mostly the youth buy drugs without any physician‟s prescription.

The aim of his work was to explore the perceptions of the youth on the substances they abused in Gawon Nama area of Sokoto, Sokoto state, Nigeria. An exploratory descriptive qualitative design was used. Twelve youth between the ages 18 to 30 years who abuse different substances but were not in psychotic state were recruited using snowball and purposive sampling methods. Semi-structured interview guide was used to interview the respondents after obtaining an informed consent from the respondents. The interviews were audio taped and transcribed verbatim, the data was analyzed using content analysis. The findings of this study revealed that the most commonly abused substance was Marijuana and the least abused was cocaine, the reasons were availability and affordability of these substances. Alcohol was not commonly abused due to religious prohibition. Physical, psychological and social effects were identified where impaired relationships and violence were common among the youth who indulge in substance abuse. Job provision, enlightenment and education were perceived measures for prevention, reduction or controlling substance abuse in Sokoto. The implications for nursing practice, policy and future research were considered and recommendations were made based on the findings of the study such as the government and non-governmental organizations should provide job opportunities for the youth.

            Kasirye (2015) put that most substance abuse programmes rely more on non-interactive de­livery interventions to help the youth, youth-led involvement in substance abuse prevention has been found to be more effective. The delivery of the non-interactive programmes contains several weaknesses, such as passivity of youth participants. Teachers sometimes may be unaccountable in passing over information or may assume the youth already know. Youth-led interac­tive programmes have a high rate of authority and significantly register less drunkenness and lower alcohol use among peer-led groups. In screening and selecting, peers look or those who are helpful, trustworthy, concerned and those who are good listeners. A key conclusion is that these programmes need to be supported, monitored and sometimes supplemented by other in­tervention models so as not to under-rate or over-emphasize and assume that “one size fits all”.

Yusuf (2010) investigated the factors influencing substance abuse among undergraduate students in Osun State; Nigeria. A sample of 1, 200 undergraduate students were randomly selected from three tertiary institution in Osun State. Factors Influencing Substance Abuse Questionnaire (FISA) was developed by the researcher to collect the relevant data. Data collected were analyzed using simple percentage, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The findings of the study showed that peer influence is the major factor influencing substance abuse among undergraduate students. The study also revealed that there is significant difference among male and female undergraduate students on factor influencing substance abuse. The study recommended that counselors should be organizing different programs to promote healthy living among undergraduate students.

Zaman (2015) explains that drug abuse is the willful misuse of either licit or illicit drugs for the purpose of recreation, perceived necessity or convenience. Drug abuse is a more intense and often willful misuse of drugs often to the point of addiction. In the eastern world the incidence shows a decline or a static pattern but the number of drug addicts is still enormous.. The major drug of abuse are heroin and marijuana but designer drugs are shown to be on the increase. The aim of the study is to determine the ratio of the drug abuse in student. For this purpose we selected different institutions including “the university of Lahore”, “Forman Christian college” (private sector) and Punjab university (Govt. sector) and conducted survey in 500 student. High proportion of students was found abusing drugs. From this study, we came across multiple factors which are the main cause of drug abuse in medical student including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, as well as personality disorder like antisocial personality disorder. The most commonly abused drugs include stimulants, opioids, and benzodiazepines, antihistamines. Although survey have indicated high rate of illicit and prescription drugs misuse among college students, few have assessed the negative consequences, personal concerns, or interest in intervention for drugs use. Drug abuse although regarded as a personality disorder, may also be seen as worldwide epidemic with evolutionary genetic, physiology and environmental influences controlling and affecting human behavior. Globally, the use has reached all-time high. The study showed males are more drug abusers as compared to females. The drug abuse ratio in students of private sector is more as compared to Govt sector.

Lawal (2015) youths are the most venerable and deeply involve group in the social menace of drugs abuse. However, drugs abuse among the youths has dominated discussion in the mainstream media recently. The menace of drugs abuse in Nigeria has reached a frightening proportion and it pervaded every fibre in the society.

Therefore, this paper attempts to examine the drugs abuse among youths in Nigeria, and its implication to national development. Content analysis method of data collection was employed. The paper examined many issues including the phenomenon of youth and the effects of frequent abuse of drugs by the youths.

Furthermore, it looked at the drugs commonly abused by them, explained why do youth abuse (Lawal, 2015). drugs, and also explored ways of prevention or control measures of curving drugs abuse.

Peter (2015) put that alcoholism and drug addiction have marked impacts on the ability of families to function. Much of the literature has been focused on adult members of a family who present with substance dependency. There is limited research into the effects of adolescent substance dependence on parenting and family functioning; little attention has been paid to the parents’ experience. This qualitative study looks at the parental perspective as they attempted to adapt and cope with substance dependency in their teenage children. The research looks into family life and adds to family functioning knowledge when the identified client is a youth as opposed to an adult family member. Thirty-one adult caregivers of 21 teenagers were interviewed, resulting in eight significant themes: (1) finding out about the substance dependence problem; (2) experiences as the problems escalated; (3) looking for explanations other than substance dependence; (4) connecting to the parent’s own history; (5) trying to cope; (6) challenges of getting help; (7) impact on siblings; and (8) choosing long-term rehabilitation. Implications of this research for clinical practice are discussed.

Drug abuse is becoming increasingly problematic in Nigeria. A number of recent studies suggest that almost all Nigerian youth experiment with drugs at some point, particularly alcohol and nicotine. The foremost concern is the number of these youth that will form an addiction to serious substances, jeopardizing their own health and safety and creating difficulties for their families and the public at large. Drug use, it is widely accepted, has negative consequences for the academic, social, psychological and physical development of users. This study aims to explore the perceptions of public secondary school students around drugs and substance abuse and how these perceptions influence their behaviors. This study was carried out in four secondary schools in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The data obtained was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings of this study reveal that the perceptions the students with regards to drugs and substance abuse contributed considerably to their behaviour on these issues (Nkereuwuem, 2012).

2.9 Summary and Uniqueness of the study

            Research on youths, drug abuse had been conducted severally in Nigeria and many part of the world. The present study seek to find out the role of Hisbah Board in minimizing drug abuse in Kano State Metropolitan.

This chapter comprises three sections (i.e. conceptual framework, theoretical framework, review of empirical studies as well as summary and uniqueness of the study). Concept of Hisbah, drug abuse causes and types of drug abuse were defined in this chapter. Theory of drug abuse was used by the researchers to argument the study with relevant input (perceptions) of the scholars.

Most of the researcher used for empirical studies in this chapter uses interview as a means of data collections two of the empirical studies uses structured questionnaire for data collection. Meanwhile, Abdurrahman (2013) conducted a research to examine the influence of drug abuse on secondary school students. The study was conducted in Ekiti and Ondo State with sample size of 460 students. Research work carried out by Abdu (2017) in Bangladash to measure the causes of drug addiction in urban life. Another research was conducted by Yusuf (2010) to investigate the factors influencing substance abuse among undergraduate students, where 1200 undergraduate students were randomly selected from three (3) tertiary institutions in Osun State. Research carried out by Shagari (2015) was conducted to examine the consequences of substance abuse, youths between ages 18-30 years were interviewed to collect the data.      

CHAPTER THREE

RESERCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

            This chapter enumerate how the research work is methodologically design as an internal consistency among the elements of a research study these elements includes; Research Design, which conceptualize qualitative research where by the variables are measured on the instruments and analysis is conducted by using statistical procedures, population of the study the population size of the study comprises all the Kano metropolitan Local Governments. Another elements of this methodology is the sampling and sampling techniques. Research instruments, validity of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection the needed data is collected through the use of questionnaire, the remaining sub-head of this chapter comprises of; method of data analysis and value of the data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

A research design is a framework or plan for a study, employed as a guide for collecting and analyzing data (Creswell, 2010). Selecting appropriate methodology can be accomplished after systematic investigation of reported methods that cater to a specific research objective. Therefor the design used in this study is descriptive research method which is more of quantitative analysis of the data collected. In quantitative research, variables are measured on the instruments and analysis is carried out using statistical procedures. Methodologists conceptualize quantitative research as a structured, predetermined methodology with a narrow focus emphasizing on the selection of adequate sample size to quantify a phenomenon for generalizing the total population.

However, in essence, qualitative research follows a flexible open approach to enquiry, describing and interpreting some human phenomenon, often in the words of selected individuals also known as the informants. Strauss, Lincoln and Guba (2001), suggested employing qualitative research methods (such as ethnographic field study, single case study, etc.) and accordingly design specific research procedures (e.g., such as, long interviews, observation etc.) for setting enquiry into complex research problems. According to Maykut and Morehouse (2011), integrating the concepts about the reality, associated with the phenomenon under study, the data collected through in-depth interviews (also known as inductive research) depends on researcher’s interpretations.

3.3. Population of the study

The population in this research is the entire Hisbah Corp members of Kano Metropolitan area of Kano State which comprised Kano Municipal, Nassarawa, Tarauni, Gwale, Ungoggo, Kumbotso, Fagge and Dala Local Government Areas. The total population used according to those selected local governments is 160 Corp members.

3.4. Sample and Sampling techniques  

A total sample size of eight Local Government were selected in the Kano Metropolitans area, the four local government selected is Kano Municipal, Nassarawa, Tarauni, Gwale, Ungoggo, Kumbotso, Fagge and Dala Local Government from the total population of 160 people in the Kano Metropolitan Area. Simple random techniques were used.

3.5. Research Instrument

A well-constructed and self-developed questionnaire titled “The Role of Hisbah Board in Minimizing Drug Abuse in Kano State. Questionnaire” was used to get the desired information from the people in the selected Local Government areas of Kano State metropolitan. The questionnaire was divided into two sections (A and B). Section A was for collection of information on personal data of the respondents while Section B consisted of statements that elicited responses from the respondents with response options: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).

3.6 Validity of the Instrument

The designed questionnaire was submitted to the project supervisor for vetting, correction and approval before distributing it to the respondents. Also it has been subjected to other experts in research and measurement and evaluation for review and correction to ensure content and face validity.

3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability of the research instrument was determined using a split half test using the odd and even numbered items to form the two halves. The two halves were administered to a sample of people from the Local Government not selected for the main topics. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. A co-efficient value of 0.65 indicated that the research instrument was reliable; hence it was adopted for getting the desired information for the study.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

The researchers collected the needed data through the use of questionnaire and its administration in the selected department. The administration of the questionnaire were carried out by the researchers and the research assistants. A total of 160 copies of the questionnaire were distributed to elicit responses from the staff and retrieved on the spot. A total of 6 questionnaires were missing while leaving the researcher with 154 valid questionnaires.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages were used in analyzing demographic variables in the research. For answering research questions, Average means and standard deviation were used. The responses for individual items by the respondents is taken into consideration by computing the average means and average standard deviations. Finally, the grand mean and grand standard deviation is computed for items measuring the same construct in order to make a decision, with taking into consideration the decision rule value obtained from the scale.

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                                   

 

 

 

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter contains four sections, the first section presented the distribution of respondents of the study on the bases on gender and age, the second part projected the analysis of data collected in the study as well as interpretations as seen in each table of analysis for clarification to the audience, the third part contains summary of findings and the fourth in the chapter comes with discussion of findings from the study.

4.1 Distribution of respondents based on gender

Table 4.2.1 Distribution of respondents by gender

Staff gender	Frequency	Percentage
Male	126	77.80%
Female	28	22.20%
Total	154	100%

Source: Field study (2018)

In table 4.1 above, it can be observed that from the respondents that appear to be one hundred and fifty four in number, one hundred and twenty six were males which are forming 77.80% of the total sample used in the study. Meanwhile, twenty eight which formed 22.20% of the total sample, this means there is more number of males in Hisbah Board staff than females. This may be attributed to the nature of the job as it happens to be very versatile responsibility and requires energetic capacity.

Figure 4.1: Diagrammatical presentation of respondents based on gender (Bar Chart)

Source: Field study (2018)

The 4.1 is meant for simplification and self-explanatory ability of diagram in communicating to all category of audience the information contain. It can be observed from bar chart. The bar for the male respondents is found to be greater in size with 126 value than that of the female with 28 values. This expresses that; male respondents are higher from the sample than female respondents.

4.2 Distribution of respondents based on age

Table 4.2 Age Distribution of the Respondents.

Age Distribution	Frequency	Percentage
Less than fourty	73	47.40%
Fourty and above	81	52.60%
Total	154	100%

Source: Field study (2018)

In the table 4.2, it can be observed that; the distribution of the respondents on age bases of age shows the Hisbah staffs that are less than forty years are 73 in number which constitutes 47.40% of the total sample. Similarly, those that more than forty years and above are 81 which constitute 52.60% of the total sample. This shows that people of older age are higher in number than those with younger ages; that is above forty years. This might be connected with the need to employed people with high sense of maturity in the Hisbah type of responsibility

Figure 4.2: Diagrammatical presentation of Respondents Age Distribution (Pie -Chart)

Source: Field study (2018)

In figure 4.2; it is clear that; the pie diagram indicated more clearly in a pictorial format how the respondents in the study appears to be of higher segment of the circle than those respondents with age of less than fourty years of age. These means that those above fourty years are higher in number from the respondents than those of less than fourty years.

4.3 Data analysis

The data analyses in this study were are presented in form of descriptive statistics using average mean and standard deviations. The result is presented under each research question as follows:

Research Question One (1): What are the factors responsible for making Youths to abuse drugs?

Table 4.3: Factors responsible for Drug abuse.

S/n	Item Statements	Means	SD
1	Poverty and ignorance lead youth to abuse drug.	3.35	0.62
2	Peer group contribute in the drug abuse of youth.	3.53	0.66
3	Bad parenting style lead to drug abuse in youth.	3.34	0.64
4	Harsh stress can affect the youth to abuse drug	3.05	0.70
5	Change of environment can lead to drug abuse in youth.	2.94	0.76
6	Some political activities may lead to youth drug abuse in the society more especially during the election period and campaign.	3.55	0.65
	Grand Mean/Standard deviation	3.33	0.67

Source: Field study (2018)

In the table 4.3 it is revealed that in the average mean for all the items have a score of more than 2.50, meaning that, the most of respondents agreed on the factors responsible for making youths to engage in drug abuse. In items of agreement all the responses on the items are in the same direction with mean score more than 3.00. However item number five (5) is the only one with mean score of less than 3.00. Similarly the grand mean is obtained at 3.33 indicating also a strong agreement. On the other hand, the standard deviation shows an agreement with trend from the respondents that all factors in the questionnaire 1-6 were accepted. The result is revealing that; poverty and ignorance are responsible for making youth to engage in drug abuse, and also among the factors that make youth to abuse drugs are peer group influence, bad parenting style, harsh stress on youth, change of environment because at times changing location possibilize youth to engaged in drug abuse, and some political elements may lead youth to drug abuse especially during the election/campaign. 

Research Question two (2): What are the measures Hisbah Board used in minimizing drug abuse in Kano metropolitan?

Table 4.3.2: Measures Used to minimize Drug abuse.

S/n	Item statements	Means	SD
1	Counselling in Hisbah assist in reducing drug abuse.	3.40	0.65
2	Hisbah radio programmes assist in reducing drug abuse.	3.18	0.56
3	Publishing banners, bill board, flayers assist in minimizing drug abuse among youth.	2.89	0.75
4	Hisbah used social gathering to preach problems of drug abuse.	3.33	0.49
5	Hisbah visits rehabilitation centers in its effort to minimize drug abuse.	3.23	0.66
6	Hisbah in collaboration with other agencies undertake operation to curtail drug abuse.	3.47	0.62
7	Destruction of unwanted drug by the Hisbah lead to reduce the high rate of drug abuse.	3.38	0.73
	Grand mean/standard deviation	3.27	0.64

Source: Field study, (2018)                                                                                                    

In the table 4.4 it can be observed that, all the items have a mean score greater than 2.50 which is the decision rule points, this shown that, the listed measures in all the items from the questionnaire that is item 7-13, are used by Hisbah Board in order to minimize drug abuse in Kano metropolitan. Similarly, the grand mean of the total items was scored at 3.27 which is strengthening the individual item score. In the other hand, the standard deviation is also taking same trend for having all score of 1.00 respectively. The measures of counselling, radio programs, publications of bill boards and banners, social gathering, visitation to rehabilitation centers, collaboration as well as destruction of unwanted drugs are all used by Hisbah Board to minimize Drug Abuse in youths.

Research Question three (3): What are the constraints faced by Hisbah in minimizing drug abuse?         

Table 4.3.3: Constraints Faced by Hisbah in minimizing Drug abuse.

S/n	Item statements	Means	SD
1	Release of drug abusers after been apprehended demotivate Hisbah effort in minimizing drug abuse.	3.34	0.69
2	Lack of manpower and facilities affect Hisbah effort in minimizing drug abuse.	3.50	0.64
3	Lack of full prosecution power affect Hisbah activities in reducing drug abuse.	3.51	0.70
4	Lack of enough supporting and information by the society members bring a lot of lapses to the Hisbah in reducing drug abuse.	3.30	0.76
5	Inadequate special field of education in the board is downgrading the work of Hisbah in the society.	3.11	0.81
6	Inadequate money and facilities may affect effort of reducing drug abuse in the community.	3.30	0.73
7	Lack of strength and physical appearance in the community of some drug agencies	2.95	1.01
	Grand mean/standard deviation	3.28	0.76

Source: Field study, (2018)                                                                                                    

In the table 4.5 above it can be observed that Hisbah faced many constraints in the process of carrying out its responsibilities. Looking of the responses from the respondents, all the items from 14 – 20 have an average mean score more than the decision rule of 2.50. This expresses agreement by the respondents that; Release of drug abusers by authorities, insufficient manpower, lack of full prosecution power, insufficient support and information from the society, inadequate special field education, insufficient fund and lack of physical strength are all the obstacles that Hisbah is coming across in their effort to minimize drug abuse among the youths in Kano metropolitan.

4.4 Summary of major findings

The following are revealed as the major findings:

a.       Poverty and peer group influence are marking youth to engage in drug abuse.

b.      Poor parenting style and societies stress in youths lives are subjecting youth to drug abuse. Socio political reasons are also responsible for accelerating drug abuse among youths.

c.       Counselling and radio programs as well as adverts strategies are helping Hisbah to minimize drug abuse among youth.

d.      Rehabilitation programs as well as destroying apprehended drugs is minimizing youth drug abuse.

e.       However, inadequate fund lead backing and community cooperation are responsible for discouraging Hisbah effort to minimize drug abuse.

4.5 Discussion of the findings

Obviously, as revealed from this study, Hisbah Board is making effort through some strategies to minimize drug abuse among youths in Kano metropolitan; As everybody is aware that Drug abuse among youth male and female has become the order of the day (Sidiq, 2016) The results obtained in the present study presents a horrifying picture and a threat for the entire society if the menace is not controlled.

With respect to the finding in this study, poverty and peer group influence are some of the major factors responsible for subjecting the youths into drug abuse, the finding of this study is in line with Yusuf (2010) in which he revealed from his study that peer influence is the major factor influencing substance abuse among undergraduate students. The study also revealed that there is significant difference among male and female undergraduate students on factor influencing substance abuse. The study recommended that counsellors should be organizing different programs to promote healthy living among undergraduate students.

Ibrahim (2016) explain that abuse is a global phenomenon found in most countries of the world among youth. Although it covers various age range group, it’s mostly common in youths between18–35 years of age. A total of 100 structured questionnaires were distributed to the respondents, followed by face to face interview to establish a relationship between what is in the questionnaire and responses from the interview. It has been found out that youth of the age range 18–25 years were more in number in terms of drug misuse. Unemployment and low level of education also play a role in drug abuse. Males are more in number than female in drug abuse misuse due cultural and religious reasons. Memory losses, school attendance, difficulty in concentration, poor performance are some of the educational consequences in drug abuse. Parents must keep watchful eyes on the movement of their children and their peers.

Lawal (2015) youths are the most venerable and deeply involve group in the social menace of drugs abuse. However, drugs abuse among the youths has dominated discussion in the mainstream media recently. The menace of drugs abuse in Nigeria has reached a frightening proportion and it pervaded every fibre in the society.

Therefore, this paper attempts to examine the drugs abuse among youths in Nigeria, and its implication to national development. Content analysis method of data collection was employed. The paper examined many issues including the phenomenon of youth and the effects of frequent abuse of drugs by the youths.

Furthermore, it looked at the drugs commonly abused by them, explained why do youth abuse (Lawal, 2015). drugs, and also explored ways of prevention or control measures of curving drugs abuse.

Based on our finding poor parental style is one of the factors that influence the youths to abuse drugs, the study by Abdu-Raheem (2013), examined the influence of drug abuse on secondary school students in relation to their family background, family cohesion, peer group influence, and students’ academic performance. Descriptive research design of the survey type and an inventory were used for the study. The population comprised all secondary school students in Ekiti and Ondo States, while the sample consisted of 4 60 students that were found to be using drugs in Ekiti and Ondo states. Simple random sampling was used to select one school from each of the 16 local governments in Ekiti and one each from the 30 in Ondo state. Purposive sampling was used to select ten students from each school in the 16 local governments in Ekiti and teneach from the 30 local governments in Ondo states. The instruments used for collection of data were a self-designed questionnaire called Drug Abuse Questionnaire (DAQ) and an inventory for collection of students’ results. The data were analyzed using Pearson Moment Correlation Analysis. The four hypotheses raised were tested at 0.5 level of significance. The study determined that there was significant relationship between family background, peer influence, family cohesion, and drug abuse. In the study, it was also discovered that drug abuse negatively affects students’ academic performance in Ekiti and Ondo States. It is therefore recommended that parents should give their children moral, social, psychological, and financial support to guide them against negative peer and societal influences.

  

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter includes the general summary of the findings in the study, similarly, the conclusion of the major findings is also found in this chapter, The last part of the chapter is putting forward a cogent recommendations grounded on the findings of the study . This can be of immense importance to stake holders and policy makers especially in converting Drug abuse among Youths.

5.2 Summary

This study was intended to investigate the role of Hisbah Board in minimizing drug abuses in Kano State. The study is made up of five chapters, chapter one consist of introduction, background of the study, statement of the problems, research objectives; the main objectives of the study is to find out factors responsible for youths drug abuse; the measures used by Hisbah Board to minimize drug abuses; to investigate the constrains faced by Hisbah Board to minimize drug abuses.

Chapter two deals with review of related literature, the literature review gives an insight into the study in trying to state and explains some concepts that are relevant and served as guiding principles in understanding the causes, types and consequences of drug abuse among the youths. Four theories were developed by the researchers to argument the study with relevant theoretical input; the theories used includes a) Personality theories of drug Abuse; b) Learning theories of Drug Abuse; c) Biological theories of Drug Abuse; d) Socio-cultural theories of Drug Abuse. Meanwhile some empirical studies that are relevant to the research work and uniqueness of the study are presented in the chapter. Chapter three of the study deals with methodology where research design, population and sample size of the study were presented, sample size and sampling techniques. It highlights on the data collection instruments; a well-structured questionnaire was designed to serve as instrument of data collection, validity, and reliability of instruments were presented.

However, chapter four presents the analysis and interpretation of the data obtained from the respondents through the questionnaire used to answer the research questions. Average means and standard deviations were used in computing the data to make decision on the statement made against such items on the research questionnaire. Finally, chapter five deal with the summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. Two set of recommendation were made: recommendations from the study which resulted from findings of the study and recommendations for further studies.

5.3 Conclusions

Conclusively, the study has exposed very significant information needed for the digging of problems or issues connected with drug abuse among youths not only in part of Kano State metropolitan but across Nigeria in general. The findings can be observed as below;

Conclusively, majority of the youth drug abusers are employed, although economic factors such as profit maximization encourage drug abuse habit among them. Lack of higher educational qualifications is another factor that pushes the youth into drug abuse and subsequently to politically related crimes. Similarly, political thuggery is also a factor responsible for drug abuse among the youth in the study area.

5.4 Recommendations

In respect to the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:

1.Government should bring out policies that will create employment opportunities for the youths in order to alleviate poverty, similarly; access to education should be provided to all so as to engage youths with issues of national development. In addition to above, parents should be advised to take proper care of their children, so that too much stress in life should be minimized on the children. Similarly social vises in the environment should be minimized and also political leaders should be advised not to encourage youth to abuse drugs.

In respect of measures taken by Hisbah Board to minimize drug abuse in metropolitan area of Kano among youths based in the findings of this study. It was revealed out from the result that using counselling approach as well as the use of radio programs are playing role as a measure to curtail drug abuse among youths. Similarly, using banners and flyers in social gathering for calling attention of the youths to abstain from drug abuse is also playing role in minimizing the problem. The policy of youth rehabilitation, collaboration with other agencies together with the Hisbah Board in campaign against drug abuse is also significant in the fight against drug abuse.

2. Hisbah Board and relevant stakeholders should embark on counselling and Radio programs as well as adverts strategies to minimize drug abuse among youths. Rehabilitation programs as well as destroying the apprehended drugs to be used to minimize drug abuse among youths. Hisbah Board should embark on destruction of unwanted drugs by the Hisbah Board to reduce the high rate of drug abuse among youths. Hisbah Board should visit rehabilitation centres in an effort to minimize drug abuse among youths. Collaborative effort between Hisbah Board and other agencies should be established to undertake operations to cattails drug abuse among the youths in the society.

3. Inadequate funds (money) and facilities are the major challenges that militate against effort to minimize drug abuse. Lack of supporting information by the society members brings a lot of challenges to the Hisbah Board in reducing drug abuse among youths. Similarly, lack of prosecution power by Hisbah Board is among the challenges of an effort to minimize drug abuse among youths in the society. Lack of specialist in the field of education in Hisbah Board is downgrading the work of Hisbah Board in the society.  

5.5 Recommendations for further study

Due to limited time, fund, distance and materials available to the researchers, other possible areas that could have been investigated were not covered in this study. Therefore the researcher suggests the following areas for further study: For further study, it might be important to dig out and confirm the type of drugs taken by the youths, so that they can be stopped at the base.

It is however recommended that parents should continue to monitor the movements of their children and the company they keep. Marital disputes should be avoided by the couples themselves. Leaders should stop using the youth in achieving their personal political interests. Religious leaders should have more to say so as to attain a virile state of political integration.

 

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